The Domestication of Maize in America

The Domestication of Maize in America Maize (Zea mays) is a plant of enormous modern-day economic importance as foodstuff and alternative energy source. Scholars agree that maize was domesticated from the plant teosinte (Zea mays spp. parviglumis) in central America at least as early 9,000 years ago. In the Americas, maize is called corn, somewhat confusingly for the rest of the English-speaking world, where corn refers to the seeds of any grain, including barley, wheat or rye. The process of maize domestication radically changed it from its origins. The seeds of wild teosinte are encased in hard shells and arranged on a spike with five to seven rows, a spike that shatters when the grain is ripe to disperse its seed. Modern maize has hundreds of exposed kernels attached to a cob which is completely covered by husks and so cannot reproduce on its own. The morphological change is among the most divergent of speciation known on the planet, and it is only recent genetic studies that have proven the connection. The earliest undisputed domesticated maize cobs are from Guila Naquitz cave in Guerrero, Mexico, dated about 4280-4210 cal BC. The earliest starch grains from domesticated maize have been found in the Xihuatoxtla Shelter, in the Rio Balsas valley of Guerrero, dated to ~9,000 cal BP. Theories of Maize Domestication Scientists have put forward two main theories about the rise of maize. The teosinte model argues that maize is a genetic mutation direct from teosinte in the lowlands of Guatemala. The hybrid origin model states that maize originated in the Mexican highlands as a hybrid of diploid perennial teosinte and early-stage domesticated maize. Eubanks has suggested a parallel development within the Mesoamerican interaction sphere between lowland and highland. Recently starch grain evidence has been discovered in Panama suggesting the use of maize there by 7800-7000 cal BP, and the discovery of wild teosinte growing in the Balsas river region of Mexico has lent support to that model. The Xihuatoxtla rockshelter in the Balsas river region reported in 2009 was discovered to contain domesticated maize starch granules in occupation levels dated to the Paleoindian period, more than 8990 cal BP. That suggests that maize may have been domesticated by hunter-gatherers thousands of years before it became a staple of peoples diets. The Spread of Maize Eventually, maize spread out from Mexico, probably by the diffusion of seeds along trade networks rather than migration of people. It was used in the southwestern United States by about 3,200 years ago, and in the eastern United States beginning about 2,100 years ago. By 700 AD, maize was well established up into the Canadian shield. DNA studies suggest that purposeful selection for various traits continued throughout this period, leading to the wide variety of species today. For example, 35 different races of maize have been identified in pre-Columbian Peru, including popcorns, flint varieties, and varieties for specific uses, such as chicha beer, textile dyes, and flour. Agricultural Traditions As maize was spread outside of its roots in central America, it became part of already existing agricultural traditions, such as the Eastern Agricultural complex, which included pumpkin (Cucurbita sp), chenopodium and sunflower (Helianthus). The earliest direct-dated maize in the northeast is the 399–208 cal BC, in the Finger Lakes region of New York, at the Vinette site. Other early appearances are Meadowcroft Rockshelter Archaeological Sites Important to Maize Archaeological sites of importance to the discussion of maize domestication include Central America:  Ã‚  Xihuatoxtla Shelter  (Guerrero, Mexico), Guila Naquitz (Oaxaca, Mexico) and  Coxcatlan Cave  (Tehuacan, Mexico)Southwest USA:  Bat Cave  (New Mexico),  Gatecliff Shelter  (Nevada)Midwest USA: Newt Kash Hollow (Tennesee)Northeast USA: Vinette (New York), Schultz (Michigan), Meadowcroft (Pennsylvania) Some Recent Maize Studies This glossary entry is a part of the About.com Guide to  Plant  Domestications,  and part of the  Dictionary of Archaeology. Carpenter Slavens J, and Snchez G. 2013.  Los cambios ambientales del Holoceno Medio/ Holoceno Tardà ­o en el desierto de Sonora y sus implicaciones en la diversificacià ³n del Yuto-aztecano y la difusià ³n del maà ­z.  Dilogo Andino  41:199-210. Ellwood EC, Scott MP, Lipe WD, Matson RG, and Jones JG. 2013.  Stone-boiling maize with limestone: experimental results and implications for nutrition among SE Utah preceramic groups.  Journal of Archaeological Science  40(1):35-44. Freeman, Jacob. Crop Specialization, Exchange and Robustness in a Semi-arid Environment. Human Ecology, John M. Anderies, Andrea Torvinen, et al., Volume 42, Issue 2, SpringerLink, January 29, 2014. Gil AF, Villalba R, Ugan A, Cortegoso V, Neme G, Michieli CT, Novellino P, and Durn V. 2014.  Isotopic evidence on human bone for declining maize consumption during the little ice age in central western Argentina. Journal of Archaeological Science 49(0):213-227. Grimstead DN, Buck SM, Vierra BJ, and Benson LV. 2015.  Another possible source of archeological maize found in Chaco Canyon, NM: The Tohatchi Flats area, NM, USA.  Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports  3:181-187. Haas J, Creamer W, Huamn Mesà ­a L, Goldstein D, Reinhard KJ, and Vergel Rodrà ­guez C. 2013.  Evidence for maize (Zea mays) in the Late Archaic (3000-1800 B.C.) in the Norte Chico region of Peru.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  110(13):4945-4949. Hart JP, and Lovis WA. 2013. Reevaluating What We Know About the Histories of Maize in Northeastern North America: A Review of Current Evidence. Journal of Archaeological Research  21(2):175-216 Killion TW. 2013.  Nonagricultural cultivation and social complexity.  Current Anthropology  54(5):596-606. Matsuda, Masahiko. Upland Farming Systems Coping with Uncertain Rainfall in the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar: How Stable is Indigenous Multiple Cropping Under Semi-Arid Conditions? Human Ecology 41, ResearchGate, December 2013. Reed PF, and Geib PR. 2013.  Sedentism, Social Change, Warfare, and the Bow in the Ancient Pueblo Southwest.  Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews  22(3):103-110. Snchez-Pà ©rez S, Solleiro-Rebolledo E, Sedov S, de Tapia EM, Golyeva A, Prado B, and Ibarra-Morales E. 2013.  The Black San Pablo Paleosol of the Teotihuacan Valley, Mexico: Pedogenesis, Fertility, and Use in Ancient Agricultural and Urban Systems.  Geoarchaeology  28(3):249-267. Shillito, Lisa-Marie. Grains of truth or transparent blindfolds? A review of current debates in archaeological phytolith analysis. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, Volume 22, Issue 1, SpringerLink, January 2013. Thompson V, Gremillion K, and Pluckhahn T. 2013.  Challenging the Evidence for Prehistoric Wetland Maize Agriculture at Fort Center, Florida.  American Antiquity  78(1):181-193. VanDerwarker A, Marcoux J, and Hollenbach K. 2013.  Farming and Foraging at the Crossroads: The Consequences of Cherokee and European Interaction Through the Late Eighteenth Century.  American Antiquity  78(1):68-88. Warinner C, Garcia NR, and Tuross N. 2013.  Maize, beans and the floral isotopic diversity of highland Oaxaca, Mexico.  Journal of Archaeological Science  40(2):868-873.

The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer †Earth Science Essay

The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer – Earth Science Essay Free Online Research Papers The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer Earth Science Essay This essay will take two contrasting case studies, global warming and the ozone layer, to show both the successes and failures that have so far been gained in dealing with this issue. The political economy of the two case studies will be analysed from the three main theoretical points which will aim to explain why the main state actors acted as they did or did not. 2. Global Environmental Degradation 2.1 Definition Environmental degradation is the transformation of an ecosystem in a negative manner that affects the conditions and/or the quality and quantity of flora/fauna in the ecosystem (Held et al. 2000:377). Due to the interlinked nature of ecosystems, when the natural ecology of an area is destroyed, the environment will also be altered. For example, over farming can lead to the desertification of once arable land and excessive urbanisation can cause an increase in flooding. This degradation can occur on a local, transnational or global scale. At the local level fly tipping in rural woodland will only have an impact on the immediate area. At the transnational level are the problems of cross boundary pollution, for example the accusation by Scandinavian countries that a large proportion of the acid rain falling on their countries originates from industrial outputs from the UK (ITE 1997:80). At the global level are problems that affect what are known as the global commons. The are reso urces that are considered to be the common ownership of humanity, upon which no state can have a sole claim to sovereignty or authority over them, for example the atmosphere or the ocean beds (Held et al 2000:378). Global environmental degradation is therefore any process that affects these environmental global commons in a negative manner. 2.2 Forms Mainly due to restrictions of space this essay will be concerned with global environmental degradation issues. However, this is also the area of study that has resulted in a significant area of both international cooperation and conflict, demonstrated by the successes, and failures, of the many international regimes established to attempt to deal with the problems. Regardless of ones view on whether globalization is a new distinct phenomenon or not (Held 2000:10), it is clearly the case that global environmental degradation on the current scale is the product of the globalization of commerce and industrialisation. At the dawn of the industrial revolution environmental degradation was mainly localised, for example the â€Å"pea-soup† fogs caused by coal burning in Victorian England (Hunt 2004). As industrialisation has spread around the world and increased in density in the developed world so has environmental damage (Vig 1999:1). It is also a significant area to study due to the inherently economic and political nature of the causes and perpetuation of the problem. The issue of global environmental degradation is one that has been discussed in many disciplines, from the natural sciences through to social science disciplines such as Security Studies and International Relations (cf Buzan et al 1998). The globalization of environmental degradation has widened the range of the problem, indeed it has now arguably become all humanities problem rather than just a few, however due to both geography and economics, the burdens of global warming will not be distributed equally among humanity as is discussed below (Ross Blackmore 1991:175) 2.2 A brief history of global responses Since global environmental degradation first crept onto the international agenda in the seventies there have been numerous attempts at setting up solid international regimes to help to combat the problem, the most significant being the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972 (Greene 2001:390). This was established as a result of the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment and aimed to establish a coordinated multinational effort to recognise and attempt to solve problems of environmental degradation at all levels and to conceptualise environmental damage in the context of development. (ibid.). There have also sprung up numerous NGO groups since then, for example Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace founded in 1969 and 1971 respectively (FOE 2004; Greenpeace 2004 ). Despite this progress reaching a global consensus on how to prevent damage to the global commons has been slow. 3. Case Study #1: The depletion of the ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol 3.1 The Ozone Layer and CFCs Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen with one electron in its outer shell, making it highly reactive, that is found in the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere. It is formed when radiation from the sun splits oxygen atoms (O2) into individual molecules, which then bond with O2 atoms to form O3 (Blackmore 1996:90). Ozone plays a vital part in the atmosphere by absorbing radiation from the sun and keeping the temperature on the Earth so that it can support life. At present under ideal conditions the amount of ozone in the stratosphere is about 10 parts per million per volume (ACDR 2003). Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a wide family of man made inert chemical gasses composed of chlorine, fluorine and carbon (Hardy 2003:18). When they were discovered in the 1930s they were believed to be the ideal gasses for refrigeration, propellants in aerosols, industrial solvents and for making foamed plastics due to their stable, non-flammable and non-toxic properties (Blackmore 1996:70). It is only when they are released into the atmosphere that they become a problem; as CFCs are lighter than air they rise high into the atmosphere when released. It is when they reach the layer of ozone in the stratosphere that problems occur. In the stratosphere they are broken down by radiation from the sun, causing a chemical reaction to take place that destroys ozone. Due to the stable nature of the halon molecules from CFCs they are not destroyed; one molecule of chlorine for example can destroy 100,000 ozone ones (Hardy 2003:18). This process is only limited by the amount of chlorine a toms available in the atmosphere and destroys ozone at a much higher rate than nature can create it, resulting in depletion of the protective ozone layer (ACDR 2003). Depletion of the ozone layer on a large scale would result in the planet becoming increasingly hotter, causing a rise in skin cancer, cataracts and damage to crops, amongst other effects (Thomas 1992:207). 3.2 International Response Concern first arose over the damage that CFCs may cause to the ozone layer in the 1970s in the US. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) after a long and protracted struggle with chemical manufactures led by DuPont, banned the use of all CFCs except for essential uses such as refrigeration (Greene 2001:402). In 1984 it was discovered that there was massive loss in the atmospheric ozone over Antarctica each spring, which became known as the â€Å"ozone hole†. By 1988 it had been proven conclusively by science that this was due to CFC release into the atmosphere and that the problem would continue for as long they were discharged into the atmosphere (Blackmore 1996:71). Other developed states soon followed suite (ACDR 2003). The first international regime aimed at dealing with the problem of ozone depletion was the 1985 Vienna Convention which established a framework for solving the issue (Molitor 1999:222) after widespread publicity and concern over the effect of CFC s. The Montreal Protocol of 1989 was the result of the Vienna Convention. Under the Protocol CFC usage was to be reduced by 50% by the year 2000 (Greene 2001:401). . Most states were persuaded to join, though developing states, led by China and India, were only persuaded to join once a Multilateral Fund was established by the industrialized states to pay the incremental costs occurred by the Protocol. The Protocol has been the subject of many amendments and the date of phasing out CFCs was moved forwards eventually to 1996 for developed countries and 2010 for developing countries (UNEP 2003). The ozone hole issue was easily solved due a combination of science, economics and politics. International cooperation to limit the damage to the ozone layer has been a major success; with ozone depleting substances (ODS) now believed to be at their peak in the stratosphere. Due to the long life time of CFCs already in the stratosphere there will be an estimated lag time of up to a decade before the ozone layer is at its full natural level (UNEP 2003:4.3). Figure 1 shows the global decrease in CFC production. The EU and the US had both phased out their stocks of CFCs by 1996, although the developing world proved more difficult (Greene 2001:401). The MLF established by the richer states at the Montreal Protocol was the most important method by which developing states were helped to cease production. In addition to the MLF a programme of technology transfer was established (Parson 1995:50). The MLF was administered by an executive committee consisting of representatives from each region on the planet and operates through the World Bank, UNEP and the UN Development Program (ibid.). Figure 1 4. Case Study #2: Global Warming and the Kyoto Protocol 4.1 The Greenhouse Effect and human contribution to it The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, and 0.93% argon, however it is the trace gasses which constitute only the tiny remaining percentage of the atmosphere that most affect climate (Hardy 2003:3). The main trace substances in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (ibid. p5), known as greenhouse gasses due to their role in the greenhouse effect. As the sun’s energy travels through the Earth’s atmosphere, 26% of the energy is reflected back into space by clouds and particles in the atmosphere. 19% is absorbed by clouds and gasses in the atmosphere and 4% is reflected off the surface off the Earth (Gow Pidwiny 1996). Only approximately 51% of the suns energy is transferred to the surface of the earth where it causes photosynthesis, heats the ground etc. When the radiation from the sun is absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere i t reduces the wavelength of the radiation reaching the ground. This is a vital part of the global ecosystem, without it the planet would be devoid of life; however it is human agency that is causing the present day problem by amplifying the natural effect (Fraser 2003). As a result the radiation reradiated from the earth is of a lot shorter wavelength, and gets trapped by the atmosphere, producing an insulating effect. This effect is shown in figure 2. Figure 2 4.2 International Response Although the greenhouse effect is a vital natural occurrence, there is strong scientific evidence that human agency, especially due to industrialization is increasing the amount of greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere. This has the effect of thus increasing the greenhouse effect beyond its natural levels, causing the planet to warm up (Ross Blackmore 1991:149; Greene 2001:404; Held et al 2000:384). Through the seventies and eighties there were many international programmes and agreements established, though none of major significance until the agreement in 1989 that there should be an â€Å"Earth Summit† in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Green 2001:393). In 1990 the United Nations Environment Program set up the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which published Policymakers Summary of the Scientific Assessment of Climate Change, the first scientific report of international significance to acknowledge the problem. The opening page of the report stated. â€Å"these increases [in the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere] will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in additional warming of the Earth’s surface† (cited in Thomas 1992: 157-158) At the Rio conference all the states present agreed upon a set of principals and aims, including the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to combat ozone depletion and global warming (Green 2001:405). Under article 2 of the Convention states were committed to achieving stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentration that would contribute to global warming (NEF 2003:2). The next summit was at Kyoto where states agreed to implement the principals agreed at Rio. The â€Å"Kyoto Protocol† as this became known included an agreement that states would work to lower their greenhouse gas emissions, which aimed to become legally binding once ratified by the signatory states (ibid. p408). Annex I countries (OECD states plus selected former Soviet Bloc states) were to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012 (NEF 2003:2). The treaty was ratified by the EU but significantly not by the US, Russia or Australia (ibid.) A system of emissions t rading was also proposed, however there was no agreement on mandatory limitations due to US disagreement, as such the list of targets was just seen as recommendations (ibid. p229), resulting in the treaty getting off to a weak start. The extent and rate of global warming is still debated in the scientific community as some claim it may be no more than a natural cycle in the Earth’s climate, however there is near universal agreement that the release of greenhouse gasses into the environment is worsening the problem (Beckerman 1992:pp254-255). There is also uncertainty about the rate and extent at which global warming will occur, a factor that has hindered political efforts to combat the problem (Hodge 1995:175; Lomborg 1998:pp258-323). In addition to debate over the nature of global warming the political and economic arguments concerning global warming are also still on-going. Problems concerning global environmental degradation have proved difficult to solve due to the issues of free-riding and the so-called â€Å"tragedy of the commons†. These two concepts, explained below, have hindered many of the attempts at making progress on global environmental issues and will need to be overcome for the universal good of humanity. 4.3 Costs and difficulties with climate control There is little doubt that combating climate change would be an expensive measure for all (Pakerr 2002). The two most commonly suggested solutions are a tax on CO2 output or a system of tradable permits (ibid.). Levying a tax on CO2 output has been one of the most widely suggest proposals for dealing with the problem (Paarlberg 1999: 242). This would act as an incentive on industry to develop greener technologies and would provide governments with the income to assist with developing greener environmental policies (Hodge 1995:184). However the knock on effects of such a tax would be unevenly distributed. The price of all fossil fuels would rise not just for industry, but for individuals as well. As those on lower incomes generally spend a higher proportion of their incomes on energy it would affect them significantly more than it would industry (ibid. p185). In order to prevent capital flight from states implementing such a policy it would have to be a co-coordinated global ef fort, otherwise the first states to impose such a policy will find their industry simply relocates to states that do not have carbon taxes. States are also likely to find it hard to pass such a proposal due to lobbying by business (Paarlberg 1999:242). If this solution was attempted at a global level it would undoubtedly be very difficult to achieve. A key reason for this is the argument by developing states that they should not be penalized for a problem that was created until recently almost exclusively by the industrialized West (REF). A proposal such as a carbon tax would also be likely hinder development and industrialization in the developing world. 5. Theories and concepts in IPE For the purpose of this essay only the modern variants of the three central perspectives shall be analyzed, this is due to space restrictions and that it is not relevant to give an account of the development of the views in order to explain their impact on present day thinking regarding global environmental degradation. 5.1 Free Riding and the Tragedy of the Commons The tragedy of the commons is a model which demonstrates why actors acting rationally in their self interest will end up harming everyone’s interests in the long term and comes from the work of Hardin (1968). Hardin demonstrates how certain situations can produce no net gains for all when actors act rationally to increase their utility. He explains this by using a parable of a field shared by several herdsmen, a situation which worked happily for centuries with the expansion of the herdsmen limited by events such as war, pestilence etc.. Eventually a situation will arise where there is nothing to stop the common land being used to its maximum capacity. Each herdsman will see it rational to add another cow as it will add to his utility. Each herdsman will gain greatly from having another cow, but will only be slightly affected by the decrease in space on the common. As each actor is rational they will keep adding more and more cows, thinking they are not harming the commo n and only bearing a fraction of the cost of damage to the common. When common is full however, and all the grass eaten then all will lose at once (Hardin 1968:1243). Although Hardin was talking about population growth the same model fits well to describe attempts to find a political and economic solution to the problems of global environmental degradation. Free riding is the situation whereby contributors to the public good, in this case preventing global warming, are unable to ensure that those benefiting from the public good are actually contributing and not just relying upon the work of others (Coneybear 1984:6). This is a particularly important problem in relation to economic matters such as global warming, where if many states were to adopt measures that were beneficial to the environment, but harmful to their economies then they would be at a significant economic disadvantage to those states which did not do so. Free riding would be easier with global warming measures due to the wide range of ODS that industries use, in comparison to ozone measures which are much more easily monitored. 5.2 The mercantilist perspective Mercantilism sees economic practice as part of a states national security, strong economies are necessary in order to strengthen a state militarily (Woods 2001:285). Mercantilism is related to realism in International Relations Theory and shares many of the same assumptions, such as the primacy of the state and viewing the international arena as anarchical (Gilpin 1987:31). States should act in economic ways that benefit them directly, and see the world in zero-sum terms. This method of thinking would claim that there is no logical reason for states to attempt to do anything about global warming, especially considering the economic costs involved, unless there is a direct threat to a states’ security, as was believed to be the case with the US and ozone depletion (Parson 1995:69) Mercantilist thinking is partly evident in the US’ rejection of the Kyoto protocol. The current Bush administration has pursued many mercantilist projects since coming to power, pandering to big industry by, against all ideals of neoliberal free trade, placing tariffs on imports in which the US is not competitive, for example on clothing (Rockwell 2003). There is a strong movement in the US against joining the Protocol or any future regime along the same lines due to the belief that it would harm the US economy (Beder et al 1997). The US Energy Information administration estimated that implicating the Kyoto Protocol would cost the US economy a minimum of $283bn and a maximum of (EIA 2002) out of a GDP of $10.4trillion (CIA 2003). This is the main argument against why the US will not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. Lobbying of the Bush administration by large polluting industries, of which the biggest donator was the now collapsed energy concern Enron (Weinberg 2003), prevente d the Protocol being ratified in the US senate. The Senate refused to ratify any treaty which did not include a demand that developing states reduce their emissions as well, rather than the scaled proposals (Molitor 1999:225). This has been seen by some commentators as the US trying to secure its own position as the leading world economy by restricting the development of the undeveloped and developing world. Bello (2003) argues that China was the principal target of this thinking as its rapidly expanding economy poses a threat to US economic domination. If the US had its greenhouse gas emissions restricted it would arguably find itself in a weaker economic position than China. Although mercantilist thinking is becoming an increasing part of US economic policy (Bello 2003), see for example the banana and steel wars with the EU, it will only serve to undermine the US’ own strength in the long run. Hegemonic stability theory, based on the work of Gramsci, claims that when other states start to perceive the hegemon’s actions as self-serving and against their own political and economic interests, the whole system will be weakened (Gilpin 1987:73). Hegemonic states need an ideological consensus for support, military strength is not enough. The US under Bush has clearly lost a lot of goodwill even from its allies in the EU over following mercantilist thinking, both in respect to trade and the environment (Shwarz 2001). 5.3 The neoliberal perspective Neoliberalism is regarded today as the basis of the global economy, the so-called Washington Consensus with its key institutions of the WTO, IMF and the World Bank (Cox 2001:120).Those adopting the neoliberal position for political economy are also likely to reject any form of attempting to solve the problem of greenhouse gas emission via taxation. Neoliberalism’s strong belief in the free-market economy and unregulated trade makes it hard to justify from the perspective any intervention in the market (Gilpin 1987:27). Neoliberalism also claims that politics should be separated from economics as much as possible, however global warming is clearly a situation that requires both a political and economic solution. Cleaver describes neoliberalism as â€Å"both an ideology and a strategy† (1997), meaning that it provides both the means and the ends of the global economy. Neoliberal thought regards global warming, like any other crisis to markets, as something that will be stabilized by the â€Å"invisible hand†, claiming that intervention by states will result in market inefficiency and will hinder (Beder 2001:129). Neoliberals believe that the solution to global warming either lies in a partnership between business and governments (Cleaver 1997) or that it lies in letting a free market devise its own solution as aforementioned (Beder 2001:129) for example as happened with the regime on ODS. Another proposed idea is the distribution of rights to areas that were previously considered global commons, such as the atmosphere in the belief that this will create a market for scarce resources, making them hugely expensive and therefore morel likely to be valued (ibid.p131) Some have argued that the implementation of the Kyoto protocol by states will benefit their internal economy as energy companies compete for green investment and are stimulated to develop new green technology (Valentine 2002). If the Protocol was enacted on a global level then states would compete to develop green technology in order to encourage business to invest. It is possible that under this situation the US could emerge a winner as it has the initial capital and technology which to invest in alternative technologies. 5.4 The Marxist perspective Marxist political economy has developed greatly since first put forward by Marx and Engles in the nineteenth century (Gilpin1987:34) and now takes many different forms. All forms of Marxism share in common some basic tenets, however only those relating to political economy will be considered here. The first is that history is shaped by the changing nature of economic production, the second that the capitalist mode of production and its future are governed by a series of economic laws (Gilpin 1987:35). Today Marxism has very little impact in the policy arena and has largely been relegated to academic studies. However Marxist views on the nature of capitalism are still relevant to the study of political economy. Marx saw the industrial revolution in Europe as based on the systematic exploitation of the working classes, today globalization can be seen as based on the principal only this time based on the exploitation of the developing world (Edwards-Jones et al 2000:16). Global environmental degradation is seen by today’s neo-Marxists as due to the nature of global capitalism, which will always aim to seek short term profitability and exploitation from the natural as well as human environment, with little thought for the long term consequences (ibid. p17). However one irony of Marxist thought is its belief that the natural environment is there to be exploited by science and technology, something that can be clearly seen in the former Soviet countries abysmal environmental record (ibid.) 6. Comparison of the two case studies The international regime to combat atmospheric release of ODS has been a resounding success as it has resulted in global production and consumption of ODS being reduced to 85% of what they were previous to the introduction of controls on them (Oberthur 2001:358). In comparison the Kyoto treaty lies largely in ruins, due mainly to pressure from business encouraging governments to refuse to ratify the treaty (Beder et al 1997). The final nail in the coffin has often been portrayed as the refusal of the Bush administration to ratify the treaty (Greenpeace 2001). However, it is arguable that the treaty had already been â€Å"killed† before then by others, such as France (Murray 2003). Environmental concerns are often seen by politicians and governments as less important than other issues, such as military security (Chalecki 2003). Despite attempts to redefine security, environmental issues have not made it high onto the agenda of many states, as such there is little political demand in government circles for states to act immediately, for example a selection of surveys of the US public from 2003-2004 show very little demand for political action on the environment (Polling Report 2004). 6.1 Economic comparison The economics of control of ODS were largely stacked in favour of banning them, especially for the US (DeCanio 2003:300). In 1987 the US chemical company Du Pont invented CFC substitutes over which it would have a production monopoly and would be able to dominate the market gap left by ceasing production of CFCs (Thomas 1992:225). Any treaty on ODS would have given the US an economic advantage as the export of CFCs could provide a lucrative income. The US stood to benefit enormously from the Montreal Protocol, even to the extent that it would have been economically viable for the US to adopt the entire cost of phasing out CFCs globally (Parson 1995:69). The US stood to gain an estimated $6.4 trillion by implementing the Montreal Protocol, mainly due to avoiding cancer deaths (ibid.). However, although US support was vital to the establishment of the international regime, it was not the sole cause and ozone depletion would not have been solved by a unilateral approach. In additio n to gains the US economy would benefit from as its assumed position as the main supplier of CFC substitutes (Thomas 1992:225) it was also attributable to the oligpolistic nature of CFC production, which was concentrated in the hands of just a few TNCs (Greer Singh 2000), for example DuPont controlled 25% of the global market (Thomas 1992:219). TNCs also eventually supported the campaign to legislate CFC production, knowing that they stood to gain (Greene 2001:402) graph showing reduction This is all a huge contrast to the economics of the Kyoto agreement. Figure 3 shows how there has been no significant decline in greenhouse gas output despite the attempts. To reach the targets of greenhouse gas reduction would require most developed states to restructure their entire economies away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energies. Although scientific evidence for global warming is strong, it is still far from irrefutable in the way ozone depletion is (cf. Lomborg 1998). There are many different models of what is likely to happen with huge differences in the amount, or in some cases lack of, global warming that will occur (Beckerman 1992:258). There is also no consensus on the role of â€Å"carbon sinks† such as forests and the oceans which it is argued may keep global warming in equilibrium due to absorbing CO2, the main greenhouse gas. This has allowed corporations and business concerns of all sizes the opportunity to claim that the science behind glob al warming is flawed and that the problem is not real (Beder et al 1997). Businesses in all developed states launched a protracted lobbying campaign against legislative bodies, aiming at getting the Protocol blocked. In the US a multitude of business interest groups were formed, with one spending  £10million on TV advertising alone to persuade the public that Kyoto would cost jobs and money (ibid.). The biggest hindrance to any solution to global warming is the reluctance of the US to get involved in any treaty that may harm their economy, despite accounting for 25% of global greenhouse gas output in 2003 yet with only 4.6% of the global population (NEF 2003:6). Figure 4 shows how the industrialized world accounts for more than a third of all greenhouse gas emissions, with half of that due to the US alone. In addition, many neoliberal think-tanks with vested interests, such as funding from environmentally harming industries have worked hard at producing academic evidence to pr ove the hugely negative impact that any treaty on global warming would have, both theoretically and economically (Beder 2001). 6.3 Game Theory analysis The model of situation the international community and states find themselves in is also different with each of the treaties. The Montreal Protocol can be seen as a â€Å"privilege† type game, where the benefits to each actor outweigh the costs (Toke 2000:51). The Montreal Protocol allowed every state to â€Å"win†; those in the developing world received the finance to move away from CFC production so it cost them very little. The US also gained due to increasing its market share and everyone gained by the ozone layer being saved. In contrast global warming is seen as a classic prisoners’ dilemma, where the stakes are zero-sum and the only positive outcome depends on the cooperation of all involved and an absence free-riding (Toke 2000:51). Another issue lies in the different construction of the two regimes. Although the UNFCCC regime was based upon the structure of the WTO, it lacked primary rules that were agreed on by all participant states (Faure Lefevre 1999:144). Primary rules are those which define the behaviour of each member state and affect how much behaviour must change on joining the regime. This can account for why the UNFCCC has been less successful than the Montreal Protocol. The goals of the Montreal Protocol required only a limited number of changes in state behaviour, whereas the UNFCCC would require large scale changes by both industry and individuals (ibid.) 6.4 The global economic context Another significant problem with global warming regimes is the development aspect (Beckerman 1992:255). While countries in the developed world were able to finance the replacement of ODS in developing states through the MLF, to do so with global warming would be impossible due to the huge costs involved. Unlike trade and economic agreements, environmental ones are rarely legally binding and often amount to being voluntary (NEF 2003:4), as such there is no international adjudicator for solving disputes or enforcement in the manner of the WTO. The NEF 2003 report suggests that states wishing to achieve the goals of the Kyoto Protocol place trade barriers and import taxes on states failing to comply with the Protocol, however this largely goes against the dominant neoliberal principal of free trade. The World Bank has a Climate Change department which aims to provide the framework for a global carbon emission trading system (Carbon Finance 2004) however this system has not yet fully come into force. 7. Conclusion From the above evidence I would argue that based on current events a universal to global warming is unlikely to happen at any point in the near future. The two case studies provide good models of how global issues of environmental degradation can be solved or what may prevent them being solved. Problems or advantages lie in the economics of the problem, the science or technology involved with the problem, the form of the decision making process and issues concerning development all contribute to the likely success or failure of international environmental regimes. The most likely solution is one which embraces neoliberal ideology and provides an acceptable economic solution to all states or a shift in global priorities brought about by apparent and conclusive effects of global warming. The ideas outline in the NEF 2003 document may go someway to providing a solution if adopted on a global level. 8. Bibliography 8.1 Books Buzan, B. et al (1998) Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Lynne Rienner: Colorado, US) Edwards-Jones, G. et al (2000) Ecological Economics: An Introduction (Blackwell Science: Oxford) Gilpin, R. (1987) The Political Economy of International Relations (Princeton University Press) Hardy, J. (2003) Climate Change: Causes, Effects, and Solutions (Wiley: London) Held, D. et al (2000) Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Polity Press: London) Lomborg, B. (1998) The Skeptical Environmentalist (Cambridge University Press) Sjà ¶stedt, G. (1993) International Environmental Negotiations (Sage) Thomas, C. (1992) The Environment in International Relations (Royal Institute of International Affairs) Toke, D. (2000) Green Politics and Neoliberalism (Macmillan: Basingstoke) 8.2 Edited Books Beckerman, W. (1992) â€Å"Global Warming and Economic Action† in Hurrel, A. Kingsbury, B. eds. The International Politics of the Environment (Clarendon Press: Oxford) Blackmore, R. (1996) â€Å"Damage to the ozone layer† in Blackmore, R. Reddish, A. Global Environmental Issues (Hodder Stoughton) Faure, M. Lefevere, J. (1999) â€Å"Compliance with International Environmental Agreements† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Greene, O. (2001) â€Å"Environmental Issues† in Baylis, J. Smith, S. eds. The Globalization of World Politics (Oxford University Press: Oxford) Molitor, M. (1999) â€Å"The United Nations Climate Change Agreements† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Paarlberg, R. (1999) â€Å"Lapsed Leadership: US International Environmental Policy Since Rio in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Parson, E. (1995) â€Å"Protecting the Ozone Layer† in Hass, P. et al eds. Institutions for the Earth (1995) (MIT Press: London) Ross, S. Blackmore R. (1996) â€Å"Atmospheres and climate change† in Blackmore, R. Reddish, A. eds. Global Environmental Issues (Hodder Stoughton) Vig, N. (1999) â€Å"Introduction† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Woods, N. (2001) â€Å"International Political Economy in an age of globalization† in Baylis, J. Smith, S. eds. The Globalization of World Politics (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 8.3 Journal Articles Beder, S. (2001) â€Å"Neoliberal Think Tanks and Free Market Environmentalism† Environmental Politics Vol.10:pp128-133 Conybeare, J. (1984) â€Å"Public Goods, Prisoners Dilemmas and the International Political Economy† International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28:1:pp. 5-22. DeCanio, S. (2003) â€Å"Economic Analysis, Environmental Policy, and Intergenerational Justice in the Reagan Administration† International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law Economics Vol.3:pp299-321 Hardin, G. (1968) â€Å"The Tragedy of the Commons† Science Vol.164:pp1243-1248 Oberthà ¼r, S. (2001) â€Å"Linkages between the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols† International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law Economics Vol.1:pp357-377 8.4 Reports ITE (1997) â€Å"Scientific Report of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology 1997-98† ceh.ac.uk/products_services/publications/online/annual/97-98/ (Institute of Terrestrial Ecology) UNEP (2002) â€Å"Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002† unep.org/ozone/sap2002.shtml retrieved 15/3/04 (United Nations Environment Program) 8.5 Online Sources Bello, W. (2003) â€Å"The Crisis of the Globalist Project and the New Economics of George W. Bush† globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/2003/0710bello.htm (Global Policy Forum) Retrieved 14/3/03 Carbon Finance (2004) â€Å"Carbon Finance Products of the World Bank† http://carbonfinance.org/ (Carbon Finance at the World Bank) Retrieved 20/3/04 Chalecki, E. (2003) â€Å"Environmental Security: A Case Study of Climate Change† pacinst.org/environment_and_security/env_security_and_climate change.pdf (Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security) Retrieved 20/3/04 CIA (2002) â€Å"United States of America† cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html (CIA World Factbook 2003) Retrieved 20/3/04 Cleaver, H. (1997) Nature, Neoliberalism and Sustainable Development: Between Charybdis Scylla?† eco.utexas.edu/Homepages/Faculty/Cleaver/port.html Retrieved 18/3/04 FOE (2004) â€Å"Who We Are† foe.org/about/whoweare.html (Friends of the Earth) Retrieved 20/3/04 Fraser, A. (2003) ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadGreenhouse.html Retrieved 1/3/04 Gow Pidwiny http://royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mpidwirn/atmosphereandclimate/greenhouse.html Retrieved 29/3/04 Greenpeace (2001) â€Å"The Climate Cannot Wait for Bush† http://archive.greenpeace.org/climate/climatecountdown/documents /clicantwait.pdf Retrieved 18/3/04 Greenpeace (2004) â€Å"About Us† greenpeace.org/international_en/aboutus Retrieved 20/3/04 Greer, J. Singh, K. (2000) â€Å"A Brief History of Transnational Corporations† globalpolicy.org/socecon/tncs/historytncs.htm#bk2_ft22 (Global Policy Forum) Retrieved 20/3/04 Murray, I. (2003) â€Å"Who Killed Kyoto?† techcentralstation.com/052003M.html (TechCentral Station) retrieved 16/3/04 NEF (2003) â€Å"Free Riding on the Climate† neweconomics.org/gen/z_sys_PublicationDetail.aspx?pid=167 (New Economics Foundation) Retrieved 15/3/04 Pakerr, L. (2002) â€Å"Global Climate Change: Market-Based Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gases† policyalmanac.org/environment/archive/crs_climate_change_market.shtml (Almanac of Policy Issues) retrieved 12/3/04 Rockwell, L. (2003) â€Å"Mercantilism USA† mises.org/fullstory.asp?control=1283 (Ludwig von Mises Institute) retrieved 13/3/04 Schwarz, P. (2001) â€Å"Transatlantic relations enter an ice age† wsws.org/articles/2001/apr2001/eur-a06.shtml (World Socialist Website) retrieved 14/3/04 UNEP (2003) â€Å"Chemicals Phase Out Schedules† unep.org/ozone/Public_Information/4Aiv_PublicInfo_Facts_che micals.asp retrieved 15/3/04 8.6 Newspaper Articles Beder, S. et al (1997) â€Å"Who Killed Kyoto?† The Guardian, 29th October 1997, p. 4 Hunt, T. (2004) â€Å"Industrial Evolution† The Guardian, 12th January 2004-03-21 guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1120734,00.html Research Papers on The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer - Earth Science EssayRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPETSTEL analysis of IndiaDefinition of Export QuotasBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfGenetic EngineeringAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductThe Project Managment Office SystemEffects of Television Violence on Children

See order info Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

See order info - Coursework Example The above discussed factors that include family structure, socio-economic status, community and own personal experiences influence decisions by several ways. These ways include change in moral judgments, emphasizing more modifying the behaviors of an individual and also inability to respond towards transforming socio-economic conditions (Kidder, n.d.). The factors mentioned above might conflict with the needs, preferences and biases of the patients and their respective families by making ineffective decisions by the family members relating to gaining proper treatment, not able to align the economic conditions with the treatment costs and irrelevant personal experience about the stated context (Claywell, 2014). There lay certain ethical theoretical frameworks that describe personal worldview about the aforesaid context in a best way. In this regard, such frameworks could be ascertained as virtue and compassion among others. For example, virtues associated with good character may support in adopting effective decisions towards deriving positive outcomes. On the other hand, exercising compassion with others in a particular setting may also describe personal worldview about the factors influencing decision-making procedure (Claywell,

The Castle doctrine in the state of Virginia Research Paper

The Castle doctrine in the state of Virginia - Research Paper Example It also gives examples of United States cases, where the Castle Doctrine laws have been applied. The state of Virginia, which is among the US states that have never implemented the Castle doctrine laws is also discussed, as well as the recent changes in the law in recent years. Finally, the paper highlights the advantages and disadvantages of the Castle Doctrine. Keywords: Castle Doctrine, Intruder, Victim, West Virginia, Statute, Self Defense The Castle Doctrine The law in most nations upholds the fact that every individual has a right to defend himself or herself against an attacker, in what is popularly referred to as self-defense. Carter points out that the permissions and powers held by individuals for their defense at their homes in case of attacks are contained in the Castle Doctrine (2012). The Castle Doctrine also deals with special cases of attacks committed towards individuals away from their homes. Gardner and Anderson define it as â€Å"the doctrine permitting people wh o have been assaulted in their homes by a trespasser to stand their ground and use such force as is necessary and reasonable to defend themselves† (2011, p. 137). According to the doctrine, a person’s home is his or her castle, and the home owner has the right not to retreat in case of an attack. The doctrine however allows this on the grounds that the attacker is a stranger or trespasser in the home, and not a co-occupant such as a housemate, spouse, or member of the family. Gardner and Anderson (2011) point out that â€Å"a minority of states have an exception to the â€Å"castle† doctrine that requires a co-occupant of a home to retreat (if safely possible) before using deadly force in self-defense† (p. 137). Origin of the Castle Doctrine The Castle Doctrine has its origins in the common law that was established thousands of years back. It is believed to have been established by Plotinus in AD 250. He stated that the only way an individual could save hi mself from an attacker was not by praying, but rather fighting the attacker (Hunter, 2012). The application of the Castle Doctrine can also be traced back to the Roman law between AD 530 and 533 by The Pandects, who urged that one’s home ought to be the safest place to live for anyone. The English law in the 1600s also upheld the doctrine and supported the statement that â€Å"a man’s house is his castle† (Hunter, 2012, p. 14). In 1690, John Locke, who was an influential political philosopher wrote that man has the right and permission to destroy anything that threatens him as well as to destroy any man that fights him. When the United States gained its independence in 1776, it was declared that pursuit of happiness, life and liberty are inalienable rights that all men, who are created equal, have (Hunter, 2012). The Castle doctrine is also mentioned in the United States constitution and the Second Amendment. Elements of the Castle Doctrine The mode of applicati on of the Castle Doctrine laws is different in different states. However, there are common conditions that basically apply to all states. These include the requirement or condition that a trespasser should have made or be making a trespassing attempt into a car, home or business (Experienced Criminal Lawyers, 2013). The second condition requires the attacker or intruder to truly be involved in an unlawful act, and this means that the intruder cannot be a law officer

Womens Day Essay Example for Free

Womens Day Essay Have you ever given a thought that why is the International Women Day Celebrated for? No? No problem. Carry on reading as it’s going to get interested ahead. Do you know when the first International Women Day came into existence? Just 101 years before. You must be thinking why is that? So listen the women did not had the same right as nowadays. They were majorly being a victim of violence, they were the main victim of poverty and lack of education, and they had no rights at all, not even a right to vote can you imagine that? The women were considered as a minority in every aspect of life than men. Don’t you think that was wrong? You’re 100% correct. These thoughts became the main reason for Women to fight for their rights when they worked as team to battle for their journey towards equality between both genders. Where did I go on International Women Day? 8th March is the official date to celebrate this interesting day all around different nations so how come you can even imagine me sitting home and watching t.v. As a young Women myself I attended an inspiring seminar on 8th March 2013 (International Women’s Day) at Olswang, London. The building was really a beautiful piece of art though they didn’t allow us to take a photo inside (Bad luck). We were given an ID badge as security purposes and we followed staff towards the meeting room with seated brilliant and successful women who looked superb as well and not to forget few men were seated there as well. Until now you may be thinking now it’s going to be boring right? Not really! What was exciting about the day? It wasn’t really a meeting or a lecture. We started with a mouth-watering variety of snacks and drinks and sat on our assigned seats with other college and school students. To give a side kick to the formality among the group members they assigned each table with a challenge of building the highest tower with the marshmallows and the bamboo sticks. My team mates started with bursting energy by pouring drink on the table. We didn’t won but had fun in it. The Guest speakers that came there were all very talented and they shared their golden experience of life and the hard works that they went though to become successful but the good thing is that they all were very happy and satisfied in their lives. They all belong to different fields i.e. police, doctor, media, recruitment sector, banking and much more. There words and the way they presented it was very motivational and it gave me a power to go beyond the limits, touch the sky and make the best of both world. That’s how this beautiful day ended up with some open chat with each other on a cuppa and cookies. We also got goodie bags specially selected for Women. Always Remember in Mind: There isn’t any minority or majority as in gender if you don’t agree then sorry to say but you need to fix those lose screws pal. There isn’t anything that the Women can’t do. You just have to learn to find your inner potential and need to trust in yourself because you are the world for yourself.

Comparing Atkins and Balance Energy Bars :: Health Nutrition Diet Exercise Essays

Comparing Atkins and Balance Energy Bars   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many are fascinated by the various diets in society; people want to lose weight by finding a reliable method that will ensure results. Two common diets include the Atkins Diet and the Zone Diet. Both of these have energy bars that contain the nutrients need to meet the diets specific requirements. In the article â€Å"Glycemic and Insulinemic responses to energy bars of differing macronutrient composition in healthy adults,† by Steven Hetzler and Veonsoo Kim, a study was conducted that compared the different energy bars. The study looked at equal proportions of these bars to see their effects on glycemic and insulinemic levels. This paper will be focusing on the differences between the Atkins and Balance Energy Bars and the effect they have on glycemic and insulin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Atkins Diet contains a low amount of carbohydrates, whereas the Zone Diet has the components of a 40% carbohydrate, 30% protein, and 30% fat breakdown. The energy bars associated with these diet influences the glycemic and insulin levels in the body. By having a reduction of glycemic and insulin levels in the body affects a diet. By having low glucose levels this will ultimately lead to weight loss. This happens either through the removal of carbohydrates or by substituting low glycemic index carbohydrates for higher ones. In doing this the higher level of insulin will be reduced, for example high blood cholesterol levels will go down.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To test the insulin and glycemic levels the energy bars contain the study had 20 healthy adult participants. They were split into groups receiving 1 of 5 test meals; 1 being low carbohydrates, 2) moderate carbohydrates, 3) high carbohydrates, 4) white bread, and 5) chicken breast. Chicken breast was the negative control since it contains no carbohydrates, whereas white bread was the positive control. Test meals 1) with the low carbohydrates, include the Atkins Energy Bar, and test meal 2) includes the Balance Energy Bar.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to see the levels of the glucose and insulin after consuming the bars blood samples were taken and analyzed. In this experiment the Atkins energy bar produced the lowest glucose results.

Religion Is Seen as Not Promoting Social Change for Marx and Durkheim. Essay

Religion is a powerful role in influencing a society and the lives of it’s members. The sociological traditions of Marx and Durkheim view religion totally differently, yet they both agree that religion is a very important aspect of a society. Durkheim and Marx each had their own definitions of religion. However, we will learn that they both see an important role that religion plays in a society, as well as the ways in which society creates and shapes their religions. Unlike Durkheim and Weber, Marx was not much concerned with the studying religion although his ideas on religion are very influential. For marx religion He further feels that a world that requires illusion (religion) has something wrong with it. Marx talks about two primary functions of religion in what he calls the â€Å"real world†. First he says that religion is the opium of the people. Marx feels religion provides anesthesia to the masses. To him, religion is a way for people to escape from some of the suffering in their lives or to somehow feel better despite all of their suffering. Religion deters suffering of the present situations of people. It allows people to put off their suffering because they believe it will be taken care of in heaven, or where ever, after they die. And as it would follow, religion helps people put more hope into â€Å"the year after†. People who are religious really do believe â€Å"life† will be better for them after they die. Also religion helps to maintain the oppression of the lower classed people by the people who make up the upper classes. The second primary function of religion in a society, according to Karl Marx, is that it is the sigh of the oppressed creature. Religion brings with it a safety value. People end up being lulled into the protection religion seems to offer them, and people do feel the need to feel and be safe. Religion also gives people an opportunity to complain about the ways of the world. The world is not the way religion says it should be and therefore people complain about the way it actually is, as a way of feeling like a good member of their chosen religion. Religion allows people to acknowledge the dehumanized state of their lives. It helps people to see the horrible way in which we are in and it helps keep us in this horrible way. We realize through religion that we are not finding fulfillment in our lives. Marx would view a relationship between religious belief and progressive social activism as a display of a dehumanized society yearning for self actualization. The people of a progressive social activist society are not getting self actualization because there political system allows for scarcity of necessities, goods and jobs, and they also oppress the people of their society. According to Marx, if people are without self actualization they will create a place where they can find self actualization. Religion helps people do that. Durkheim dedicated a considerable part of his academic life to the study of religion especially religion in small scale traditional societies. Allotting a single sentence to Durkheim in a kind of appendix to The Sacred & The Profane, Eliade comments that the French founder of sociology ‘believed that he had found the sociological explanation for religion in totemism’. Durkheim bases his work on the totemism practiced by Australian aborigines and argues that totemism is the most elementary or simple form of religion. Durkheim starts Forms by looking at how religion may be defined and here the sacred profane dichotomy comes immediately into play: the primary characteristic of religion is that it divides the world into the two domains of sacred and profane. In fact, the two are opposed so fundamentally that they are seen as separate worlds. In Durkheim’s view the sacred is far from being synonymous with the divine. Not only may gods and spirits be sacred, but also things like rocks, trees, pieces of wood, in fact anything. For what makes something sacred is not that it is somehow connected to the divine but that it is the subject of a prohibition that sets it radically apart from something else, which is itself thereby made profane. Durkheim describes religion in terms of beliefs and rites. For him, the details of these in particular religions are particular ways of dealing in thought and action with the fundamental dichotomy of sacred and profane.

Ageing problem in China

The second half of the 20 century, human beings has experienced the most rapid population ageing population process, especially in developed countries. Meanwhile, China followed the step to get in an ageing society with weak economic strength and an Imperfect system which have significant Impact In economy and society. In addition, the current old-age security, health care Institutions and traditional management system have not kept pace with the development of old age boom, so that China's government should take a series of measures to encourage people to prepare for old age.The United Nations believe that if the old people in a country over the age of 60 are more than 10 percent or over arrears old of population for more than percent of the total number, then it is already belongs to an ageing population country. This problem is generated by population age structure, while the change depends on three factors: births, deaths and migration. The most Important element determining the ageing population Is the decline of fertility rate. [l] So far, In our country there are 144 million of classified old people, making 1 1 percent population in total, and Increasing at percent average annual rate.It Is predicted that by 2020 China's elderly population will reach million, accounting for 17. Percent in total, and after 2050, the data will jump to percent, getting into severe ageing stage. The ageing levels rise from Percent to percent in Just less than arrears, while Britain, France, the united States and other western industrialized countries of will take roughly arrears. [2] As a developing country with a large population, this rate is indeed staggering. Impact Ageing population Is the product related to national economy, politics, culture and any other fields.It concerns the people's livelihood and national sustainable development strategies of major social Issue. In this paper I will discuss two mall Impacts related In economy and the whole society. With the growt h In the number of people living longer, it brings financial difficulties, especially in China, the number of old people is large and the number increases dramatically which means the government needs to increase the financial expenditure in retirement pay, pensions, health care, health insurance and elderly welfare.Moreover, there is not a perfect social security system in our country. The labor market is also affect by an ageing population. To be specific, it causes a decline in the proportion of working-age population and the ageing labor force, leading to a reduction in supply of workforce and labor productivity. In this case, China will find it hard to change the situation In cheap labors focus and get some competitive edge in the International market. The consumption structure and Industrial structure might be changed.We cannot Ignore the fact that old people are a kind of special consumer group In living goods, housing, tourism and medical care. With the number of old people going up, those consumer rodents gain their position in the market which is the reason to make the medical industry in a large extent. The elderly are the major consumer of health care group and main beneficiaries in medical insurance system. On the one hand, old people belong to the group of easily attacked by diseases because body tissues and organs are heading into a higher speed aging process, and the resistance is too weak to resist the attack of disease.The relevant research indicates that percent of critical illness shared by the people who are over arrears old is 5. 6 times more than the total in the whole country. On the other hand, there are varieties of demands in health service and the medical expenditure is become more and more expensive, so that numerous families can not afford it. The burden of family will be heavier than before. A family with old people is required long-term care services, rehabilitation care and spiritual consolation and so on.Nowadays in China, the structure of family affected by One Child Policy, one person required to support the four elderly and one child. How stressful they are. Strategies Facing the severe situation of an ageing population, it is a challenge for the Chinese overspent. In order to promote sustainable development and harmonious society, the three below strategies can be done by government to encourage people to have a happy life in their old age. To improve the old-age medical security system and continue to be improved.It can offer a effective and a whole set of services from hospital to daily health care, as well as medical insurance, pension insurance and elderly welfare for the old people. In addition, it stimulates the economic boom of relevant industry, such as home-care agencies. Paying greater attention to the elderly community service system and strengthening community- based social welfare and the basic community service function. The overwhelming majority of old people are empty nesters, which m ean they like the birds living in the empty nest and no one take care of them.Considering this situation, government should invest more on building elderly community service system, like increase the sport equipment, medical services, elderly community activities and projects. To make people more aware of elderly health care by promoting or advertising. In this way people will gradually notice and improve the ability to remain independence. It can also help the elderly to be self-reliance, self-care and self-help capabilities which will benefit for their physical and mental health.On the other words, it can cultivate a healthy aging environment to reduce aging, so that many organs and functions could be extended as much as possible. In conclusion, much needs to be done to deal with the ageing population, and it not only depends on a robust system of government but also the effort of the public. As the saying goes, Rome was not built in a day. We need to develop step by step and lear n from experiences other countries to help us to promote strategy of sustainable development.

Essay on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Essay on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Essay on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Sir Gawain and the Green Knight essay: This essay discusses in depth the personality of Sir Gawain as depicted by the author Marie Borroff in her book ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’. By elucidating the outstanding traits of Sir Gawain, we shall show how rightly he has been claimed as the protagonist of the story, and how prominent qualities in his character make him so distinguishing from the rest of contemporary knights of King Arthur’s round table. Sir Gawain After a close study of the book ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’ the traits of Sir Gawain as mentioned in the ensuing paragraphs make him the most prominent of all the knights in the Camelot of King Arthur. Faith in God and Religious Devotion The theme of religion can be well drawn from words of Gawain about his encounters depicting him as a religious man, a religious man who puts his faith in God’s care and acknowledges that he is protected. The words of the knight are filled with vigor in respect to the fate ahead of him. The fact was that the blow dealt to the green knight would be reciprocated to the participant in the game. Gawain struck the knights head off, and this was the fate he was entitled to face though with an assurance of regeneration after certain duration and this was a source of motivation for Gawain’s action. Chivalry Loyalty Gawain is a knight; he is expected to protect the king from all harm regardless of the situation. The king endangers his life by accepting to participate in a dangerous game. Sir Gawain steps up to protect the king as expected. This is the theme of chivalry used in the poem to ensure relational poetry. In the Lords castle, Gawain refuses temptations from the Host’s wife. This shows Gawain is a man of honor and respects His Lords hospitality. Accepting such advances would discredit his honor and disrespect his host. The Chivalry theme is conflicted when Gawain finds himself in a dilemma. The advances from the Lady of the house and respect for the Lord put him in a difficult position. Being a knight of the round table, ideals of chivalry are upheld with the brothers of the round table offering to share it on the burden carried by Gawain. Chivalry refers to the individuals actions in relation to the societal acceptable behavior. The knight behaves according to his expectation ensuring a balance in responsibility and expectations in the community. The theme ensures continuity in the poem, and understanding of the hierarchical relationship issues in the society. Thus the occasions on which Sir Gawain has been shown to display his loyalty and chivalry were the moments when King Arthur had accepted the challenge of the Green Knight all by himself and was about to pick the ax to behead the Green Knight when suddenly Sir Gawain leapt to replace his master and took the challenge himself. He displayed tremendous loyalty in sacrificing his life just to save the King Arthur who was also Gawain’s Uncle in blood relation. Keeping Promises Gawain has been depicted as a man of words, a person who always kept his promises. Gawain fulfilled the promise which he made with the Green Knight when the former beheaded the latter with ax. Another instance proving Gawain to be a man of words is that he responded truthfully to his host by then known to him only by the name Bertilak, the lord of the castle where he stayed. He had made promise with his host to return to him what he gets each day, so he gave him the number of kisses in return, which the wife of Bertilak gave to Gawain each day. Chastity Integrity Gawain is essentially an honorable knight who always followed the path of truth not fearing for the consequences. The fact that Gawain did not respond to the sexual and seductive attempts on him from the wife of his host proves that he cared much for his honor and is not essentially a man of lose character. When once he made a mistake by accepting the green silk girdle from his hostess as a token of magical power to avert death, he felt guilty of committing such a low act that was not worthy of a religious and honorable man. Then he tied the green silk girdle around his arm so as to display his courage of convictions and his guts to admit his own fault. Profound Insight into the Realities of Life Sir Gawain has been depicted in the book as a knight who has much insight into the hard facts of life. He knows deeply how the varying circumstances in man’s life may affect his temperament and mood. So he believes that one must not continue to delve in the present situation though it could be at the height of joy, ecstasy or merriment. He knows that there is other side of the picture which is associated with adversaries. Gawain displays this insight when during the most rejoicing moments in the court of King Arthur on the occasion of New Year’s Eve while all are busy enjoying the feast, it is states in words quote: Gawain was glad to begin those games in hall, But if the end be harsher, hold it no wonder, For though men are merry in mind after much drink, A year passes apace, and proves ever new: First things and final conform but seldom. (495–499) And it happened as it was perceived in the above passage. Exactly a year after Gawain had to set out in search of the Green Chapel facing a lot of hardships and adversaries on the way and during the most hazardous journey. He was consumed with serious thoughts and surrounded all over by worries and about his fate prophesized by the Green Knight one year before when Gawain chopped off his head with ax. CONCLUSION It is said very rightly that both virtues and evils speak for themselves. A man with good nature and divinely qualities will exhibit actions that are virtuous and honest, while a person afflicted with evil elements will exhibit actions that are wicked and nasty. Same is the case with Sir Gawain who is essentially a man of divinely attributes as depicted in the book Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. And thus Sir Gawain always acted in the right direction and followed the path of integrity, loyalty, truthfulness, faith in God and Chivalry. At you can easily buy essays from experts on this topic. All custom essays are written by certified academic writers. Non-plagiarized essays with timely delivery.

The Impressive Range of Impress

The Impressive Range of Impress The Impressive Range of Impress The Impressive Range of Impress By Mark Nichol Impress has various meanings, both literal and figurative. This post explorers those senses and the meanings of various words in which impress is the root. Impress is derived from the Latin verb premere, meaning â€Å"press† and the source of press in all its senses. It usually is a verb and can mean â€Å"imprint by applying pressure† or â€Å"affect significantly.† (It is also a synonym for transfer and transmit.) One can impress a design onto an object using heat or physical pressure, such as by branding or stamping, and one can impress another person by performing an action the other person considers impactful or meaningful. One can also do or say something to impress on another person the significance of a fact or opinion. Another sense of impress is â€Å"force or take by force,† as in the case of sailors or soldiers enlisted against their will or someone coerced or pressured into undertaking an action or a task. However, impress is also a noun, though its use as such is not as common as its employment as a verb. An impress is an imprint or a stamp or seal, an effect, or an act of forcing such as one of those described in the previous paragraph. The act, however, is usually referred to as impressment. An impression is an effect of, or a feeling based on, an action or an imprint or mark on an object or an act such as imprinting or marking. The word also refers to a first coat of ink or paint or the amount of pressure with which it is applied, or the entirety of a set of printed materials produced in one batch. It also pertains to an imitation of a recognizable person that exploits well-known traits such as a unique voice or distinctive mannerisms; one is said to do an impression of someone else, and a person who routinely does impressions for entertainment purposes is called an impressionist. Impressionist also refers to an artist who creates visual art, literature, or music intended to capture feelings instead of details or represents impressions of reality rather than reality itself. In painting, the term is often capitalized, and the art form is called Impressionism. The adjective pertaining to the artist sense is impressionistic. Two other adjectives stemming from impress but distinct from impressionistic and each other in meaning are impressive and impressionable. The former means â€Å"eliciting admiration or awe,† while the former means â€Å"tending to be easily influenced† and usually pertains to children or young people who have not yet acquired critical-thinking skills, though it may also apply, in a pejorative sense, to adults who are insufficiently skeptical. The less common adjective impressible, however, applies to the sense of imprinting. The noun impresario, referring to a conductor, manager, promoter, or sponsor of an entertainment event or series, is unrelated; taken directly from Italian, it derives ultimately from the Latin verb prehendere, meaning â€Å"seize† (also the source of apprehend, comprehend, and prehensile). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Redundant Phrases to Avoid8 Types of Parenthetical PhrasesDealing With A Character's Internal Thoughts

Business Organisation and Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Business Organisation and Policy - Essay Example Moreover, if any firm buys or merges with any other firm which is at a different level of the value chain and the chain of production, it will be called vertical integration. There are two types of vertical integration namely: Backward vertical integration and forward vertical integration. Backward integration occurs when a firm merges with or takes over firms at an earlier level of the chain of production than itself. For example, when a big retail store such as Wal-Mart, purchases a factory or plant which processes and produces frozen food, it would be called backward vertical integration as Wal-mart is ensuring a stable and secure supply of frozen food. Backward vertical integration is helpful where the suppliers have a stronger network and a stronger negotiating power in the industry. On the other hand, forward vertical integration occurs when firms take over or merge with firms which are at a later level of the value chain of production. For example, if a raw material supplier b uys a factory or when a clothes manufacturer opens up a retail outlet, it will be called forward vertical integration. Forward vertical integration opens doors of a steady revenue stream for firms. ... ADVANTAGES OF HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION When a firm expands horizontally, it is likely to experience economies of scale from the increased output. Firms can increase their profitability as per unit cost decreases with the increased level of output. For example, if a huge retail store merges with another chain of retail store, it can achieve economies of scale in the form of more discounts from manufacturers owing to bulk purchasing. As the store would now technically be purchasing close to twice as much as it did before under one umbrella, it would receive large discounts from manufacturers as well. Similarly, if a manufacturing firm merges with another, not only this would be the merger of capital, assets and liabilities, but also the firm would now share each other’s competencies and specialties. This might even include more cost-efficient production processes, vendor relationships, discounts on bulk purchase of raw materials etc. Besides this, the business would also expand on its geographical reach to the market. For example, when the Royal Bank of Scotland merged with Faysal Bank in Pakistan, all of Royal Bank of Scotland’s network of branches and accounts spread throughout Pakistan came under Faysal Bank’s control and brand name. Unilever’s taking over of Polka ice-cream in Pakistan is another example of geographical expansion through horizontal integration. This gave them an easy access to the market of Pakistan. However, as opposed to vertical integration, firms might enter into businesses which are out of the scope of their operations and specialization. This could misallocate resources into less profitable ventures if not unprofitable and even lead to money being drained on the

Second Language Acquisition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Second Language Acquisition - Essay Example Children respond according to their imagination. This way they are able to make a link between the country and the food. The teacher also speaks the adjectives and nouns loudly, for example, emphasizing on the word delicious. This makes the students grasp words and makes them learn how to use them in sentences. The teacher does not point out their mistakes; instead, she encourages them and repeats what every one of them speaks. She knows how to be lenient with non-native speakers. She involves all the children in the lesson and aims at making them participate actively so that they are able to think on their own and to recognize things and assign names to them. In short, the teacher uses interesting strategies to address the needs of non-native speaking English students by making use of the most modern technological tools like multimedia and by making the whole class participate in the learning process.