The Arrival Of Home Video - 891 Words

The arrival of home-video however had an opposite impact. And it was just a beginning of the whole technological revolution that will completely turn people’s film watching habits upside down. Film viewing was taken into the comfort of the home space with the arrival of television. However the capabilities that home-video, followed by DVD-s, Blu-rays, Netflix and all the other VOD services, were a true breakthrough for the film buffs. This change on one hand inaugurated a completely new stage of cinema’s relocation to multiple other platforms, on the other ripped off the cult, quasi-religious facet of cinema going and spectatorship. In 1996 a New York Times published an article by Susan Sonntag â€Å"The Decay of Cinema†, in which she announced the end of cinephilia. She wrote: The conditions of paying attention in a domestic space are radically disrespectful of film. (†¦) To be kidnapped, you have to be in a movie theater, seated in the dark among anonymous strangers. What Sonntag here sentimentally mentions was a unique cinema experience, seeing a picture on a wide screen, coexisting in the particular time and space with other spectators. Being among strangers, nevertheless was a very communal experience and discussions after the screenings in cine clubs were a norm. The way we access and view films has changed dramatically. First of all film has moved out of its canonical location, spread to new environments – cable tv, mobile devices, digital and online world. Cinema’sShow MoreRelatedSears Shop Case Study970 Words   |  4 Pagesconcealed items. The female was then seen entering the front passenger door of a red BMW with a possible California license plate of #4AYV085. The vehicle was last seen exiting the parking lot onto westbound Sears Way toward Rosemead Boulevard. Upon my arrival, I was traveling east on Foothill Boulevard directly in front of the Sears Store. I observed a red BMW exiting the Sears Store parking lot and onto westbound Foothill Boulevard. I entered the Sears parking lot and made a U-turn in order to determineRead MoreBusiness980 Words   |  4 PagesVideo rental industry Definition: Branch of the entertainment industry that engages in renting prerecorded video material for home and personal viewing Significance: After starting in 1979 with a single retail outlet in Los Angeles, the video rental industry boomed during the 1980’s and became a fixture in consumers’ spending during the 1990’s, grossing an average of $1 billion yearly. With the arrival of digital versatile discs (DVDs) and the Internet during the 1990’s, the industry experiencedRead MoreSef Gonzales923 Words   |  4 Pagesinflicting five major stab wounds to her neck and two major stab wounds to her abdomen. Mary Loiva arrived home at about 5.30pm. Immediately upon her arrival, Sef attacked her in the living room with one of the kitchen knives. Gonzales inflicted multiple stab wounds and cuts to her face, neck, chest and abdomen. Her windpipe was completely transected in the attack. Teddy returned home just before 7pm and shortly upon entering the house, Sef attacked him inflicting multiple stab wounds to his neckRead MoreEssay on Charles Ng962 Words   |  4 PagesOn June 2, 1985, Officer Daniel Wright, of the San Francisco Police Department, was dispatched to a lumberyard where a shoplifting had just occurred. Upon arrival, a store employee informed the officer that an Asian man had concealed a bench vice in his jacket and was seen placing it in the trunk of a 1980 Honda Prelude., and when the employee attempted to question the man he quickly fled on foot. Officer Wright looked into the vehicle and discovered a bag that contained a silenced handgun. At thisRead MoreThe Shocking Closing Of Blockbuster Video Stores1536 Words   |  7 PagesBlockbuster Video Stores Katrina Evans August 25, 2015 OL500-Final Research Paper Rough draft Dr. Shana Patrick Southern New Hampshire University Abstract Blockbuster Video Inc. was an exciting idea introduced to America to provide affordable home entertainment to families across the country. Unfortunately, the company has had to make some decisions to close stores and take different routes on making profit. With the introduction of newinnovative ways to view movies at home, BlockbusterRead MoreFilm Analysis : Native People, First Encounters, And The Conquest1206 Words   |  5 PagesAztecs. The Anasazi were located in the American southwest in Arizona and New Mexico. Their architecture consisted of stone masonry to build their structures which included the Kiva, where rituals would be conducted by the natives. They also built homes underground to decrease contact from the heat of the sun. These structures were built before the cathedrals from Europe. They have achieve constructing 400 miles of roads to enable trade and commerce. Pueblo Bonito 1100 AD was one of those cities thatRead MoreIs It My Future?1446 Words   |  6 Pageshas resigned her position and has successfully gained employment with an agency that installs telemonitoring equipment in the homes of patients with chronic illness. She brags about the position stating that she gets to work from home and only on occasion has to attend meetings at her agency. She does not visit the patients in their homes but will monitor their status by video conferencing. Her goal is to detect any problems in their disease process earlier in order to possibly eliminate a hospitalizationRead MoreScholarship Essay908 Words   |  4 Pagesand International education would be to create a scripted journal. This journal would be filled with practicing of my experiences of what I will learn in a different country. I hope to present scripted journal with friends, staff, and others at my home school as well to others to the international program center as a way to promote my studying and career choice in a different region. My artistic careers are an easy way to catch peopleà ¢â‚¬â„¢s attention, so the goal will be for students to be interestedRead MoreViolence And Violence Among Children901 Words   |  4 Pagesphysical altercations in recent years. Many have tried to identify what is causing this increase in violence among children. The growing problem of violence and aggressive behavior in society is speculated to be credited in part to the rise of violent video games. Background Over the past few decades the average person’s daily routine has changed drastically through the rapid development and advancements in technology. Most people living today can remember a time when not every person had a cell phoneRead MoreHanoi Case Study828 Words   |  4 Pagesinternational outbound flight to Hanoi. Day 2  Hanoi Upon arrival in Hanoi, you are greeted by an Audley representative and taken to your hotel by private transfer. The rest of the day will be free to relax or explore at your own leisure. You might like to visit the Hoan Kiem Lake, a short walk from your hotel. Its beautifully lit up at night. Day 3  Hanoi This morning embark on a private city tour with your driver and guide. Visit Ho Chi Minhs former home, the Temple of Literature (the first university

Essay on Creative Writing GILF - 1672 Words

GILF When the weather turned, no one spoke to Anne about anything other than the weather; the same conversation, all day, every day until the sun returned. Glancing occasionally through the bakery window she saw the rain fall like strings of mercury, exploding into black droplets onto the pavement outside. Little drops of gloom, drops of gloom that keep us alive, that others in more remote corners of the globe tempt with elaborate dance. Anne had seen them on the Discovery channel pounding their leathered feet on the scorched, cracked earth and shaking their rain sticks at the sun and sky. With no breeze to carry the weight of a prayer their cries fall, shattered, parched and trampled underfoot. If the rain did show up the locals danced†¦show more content†¦On sunny days the world, Anne’s world seemed brighter, people were happier and if ‘anything positive’ had plans, ‘anything positive’ would turn up on a sunny day with a spring in his stride an d a tuneful whistle on his lips. Why ‘anything positive’ was Masculine Anne didn’t know, Masculine, ‘men’, ‘man’, no she had one of those before and he’d died a terrible statistic, what a way to go. Even so, despite his untimely demise Anne was, she had to admit, glad to see the back of him, idle bastard that he was. On sunny days Old women spoke about ‘Mrs Whatshername’ and her immoral habits, support tights, supper and the grand kids. Young mothers stressed about new teeth, tantrums, potty training and finding the right school whereas old men just talked about themselves. Something happened to men of a certain age Anne noticed, they completely gave up on the rest of humanity, rather they became insular and self obsessed. Nothing new is any good, it’s all bollocks, the internet is Satan, nothing is ever made like it used to be and kids are in need of a bloody good war. Rather than dwell on the state of the world they shut out everything else but themselves, become blinkered and bitter. Their wives, if they still have them, become ghosts long before their time, shadow people that leave food on the table and wash their husband’s socks while husband spends his time pottering! Pottering never actually achieved anything in Anne’s book,

Association Advancement Computer Education â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Association Advancement Computer Education? Answer: Introducation A diagnostic tool refers to the ability to determine if something is functioning properly or performing its duties. 0n the other hand, a communication style relates to the way people interact with each other verbally or even nonverbally (Adler, Rodman, DuPr, 2016). It involves the combination of both language and nonverbal cues and is the meta-message which defines how a listener receives and interprets verbal messages. When communicating with each other, you follow specific steps of the communication process that include: source-encoding-channel-decoding-receiver. Various communication styles are used across a wide range of areas in our day-to-day activities (Guffey, Loewy, 2012). Having to understand the style of the person you are communicating with determines the difference between getting your message across and getting it across well. In this context, I shall focus on the following key areas: The Mediators To become a mediator, one needs to be at ease; level-headed, a great listener and introverted. Most of them like marinating on questions so they will not give answers directly. To connect with them effectively; you need to keep your tone of voice at discussion level while verbally communicating, start a conversation with a warm and friendlily greeting, be patient and logical in your communication. The Analyzers These are people considered perfectionists and task-oriented and are suspicious of others. In such a setting you may find them answering a question with another question (Rost, Candlin, 2014). To communicate with them, you must choose the words you use very wisely avoiding terms such as Let me offer you some advice. make all the points understood before moving to the other. The Socializer You may find the setting of your communication being livelier. They like talking and a loud enough. Are also considered friendly to people and very social. To effectively communicate with them; allow time for interaction, put details down in writing, have a fast pace in your speech and avoid a rough, aggressive tone. The Aggressor-Asserter There is a setting of a CEO attitude. They are direct and blunt in their communication making you know where you stand (Tyagi, 2013). To ensure that your communication is effective; be brief, straight and succinct, use a fast and quick pace, avoid lots of details, look them in the eyes, and give short answers. Communicating effectively in different environment setting is an art and understanding your environment creates harmony and avoids contradictions. Communication Diagnostic Tools Before starting to talk, planning your message is very necessary. It requires one to take some time and figure out what exactly you want to say and why you want to say it (Broadbent, 2013). This helps avoid conveying information that is not needed and saving on listeners or readers mind too. Planning what you say takes some steps; understand your objective, your audience, plan what to say. Keep it simple and straightforward since good communication needs to be efficient as well as effective. After having a clear idea of what you want to say, create a clear, well-crafted message. You have to decide how exactly you will put your words across as you take the responsibility of conveying a message that is clear and concise (Geissler, Edison, Wayland, 2012). One is required to consider how your audience will perceive the information and not only what you say if you want to achieve this. You need to choose the best communicating channel to send your message to make use of it (Burgoon, Guerrero, Floyd, 2016). A simple task can be send using email but delegating a complex task may require you to speak in person. A negative emotional content may require you to communicate face to face. To be a good communicator, you also need to allow the other person speak and you just listen. To understand the information being presented, understand the emotions the speaker is expressing. Feedback would be important to ensure that the audience has understood your message. Feedback by body language gives most information about the effectiveness of your communication. You can watch out for a gesture, facial expression and even posture of your audience. Findings of the Tools To become a good speaker, I need to have the required skills to speak, relay information through the right channel as well as be a good listener to others. I should be able to understand what I want to say, read my audience, anticipate the other person to react to my message, select a body language that enables my audience to hear me, check my tone and other subtleties, understand time constraints, paying attention and avoiding distractions. Based on my analysis of the findings, I cite two major communications issues that require development. They include: being able to create a clear and well-crafted message based on my audience, ways of becoming a good listener and how well I can receive and interpret a message. Over a couple of months ago, I have had some professional interactions where my communication skills were highly tested. I have had student-student interactions as well as student-instructor interactions. As a student possessing the skills to be able to listen to others and communicate to them effectively becomes quite a problem. This arises in situations where I fail to decode the right instructions as given by my instructors as well as not being able to answer them back. Communication barrier occurs with the other students when there is need to express me to them and lack the objective or have a problem with the choice of words to use to either contribute to an issue or to express me. Hence, it is necessary to develop these two major communication problems. Listening skills Listening refers to the process of accurately receiving and interpreting messages in the process of communication (Bodie, Cyr, Pence, Rold, Honeycutt, 2012). It is key to any communication, and without it, words are easily misunderstood. Excellent listening skills enable us to have social networks, perform well in our studies, and have better health and general well-being (Bodie, Vickery, Gearhart, 2013). Listening involves not only paying attention to the story but how it is told and the use of language and voice and the use of body language. Models to Effective Listening Skills Position your body in a manner which makes it comfortable as well as inviting for others to come and talk with you. It can involve facing the one talking to you, and if not sited, take an open posture with the arms on the side (Carlile, 2014). Looking around as the conversation takes place or if you keep yawning indicates that you do not want the conversation. To show attentiveness, raise your elbows once in a while, mover closer to the person you are speaking with, smile and laugh when necessary, and nodding your head to agree. Maintain an eye contact to indicate that you have the attention and respect to the speaker. It gives the other person go ahead to pass across their message knowing that you are listening A crucial part of listening is the ability to let go of background noise, thoughts, and even conversations and focusing on the main talk (Islam, 2012). Being carried away by other events prevents you from listening fully. It is wise to turn off communication devices as it is polite and gets rid of extra distractions. Observing the speakers body language is important as somebody languages can communicate to a larger extent than actual wordings. Word of mouth only gives a small fraction of the whole message so watching out for body languages gives a further understanding of the message. Be open-minded judging only after you have heard and evaluated what one has said. Wait before forming opinions because once you do for example see one as being ill-informed, you shut them out and no longer listen to what they have to say. Have an open mind that you appreciate others scope of seeing things from a different perspective. Ask questions during an appropriate pause and avoid interrupting a speaker to ask something. Wait for a break and then ask. This gives the speaker the idea that you are interested enough to want clarification. This creates a speaker-listener conversation rather than someone merely talking to you. Listen with the intent to learn. Fully take in what your partner has to say and make each and every conversation as a learning opportunity. Do not focus too much on how you are going to reply to a person talking to you but understand and absorb what they are trying to put across. Listen to the speakers words and try to picture what they are saying. Create a mental model of the entire conversation to understand it even better by keeping all senses completely alert (Lemonnier, 2012). Always remember keywords and phrases that the speaker uses. Do not rehearse what you are going to say as you listen as this two cannot go hand in hand. Focus only on what the speaker is saying. Always put yourself in the speakers shoes by feeling what he is feeling. Express joy, sadness, or even fear when the person you are talking to does. Use facial expressions to convey them, and your effectiveness as a listener is guaranteed. Communication Skills This is the capability to communicate to others in an effective and efficient manner (Holloway, Mitobe, Atherton, 2015, March). Managers who are decent verbally help facilitate sharing of information between people within a companys setting. It is essential for one to build your way to the top of the business world. Models to Effective Communication Skills You should have the courage to say what is in your mind. One should have the confidence to know that they can make worthwhile contributions to a conversation (Buchanan, Seligman, 2013). Know your opinions and feelings so that you can be in a position to express them to others. Take practices by involving yourself with simple interactions ranging from both social skills to professional skills (Thomas, Stephens, 2015). The new skills may take a while before they can put into practice, but every time you put your communication skills into practice, you open an opportunity to future partnerships. By engaging the people you are talking to, you make them be interested in you. Look at the listeners eyes and move to the eye (Keyton, Caputo, Ford, Fu, Leibowitz, Liu, Wu, 2013). The back and forth movement between the two would make your eyes sparkle. Learn to speak clearly and audibly. Do not allow the space for people to keep asking you to repeat yourself. Instead, learn to articulate yourself in a better manner by even pronouncing your words (Owens, 2016). If not confident about the use of a particular word, then avoid using it altogether. Read new words in your daily routine to master new words and learn their correct pronunciation. Tell a story. Stories help activate our brains making our presentation better and out of it, we can be more persuasive in our communication. They also put us in position to be able to face interviews. Learn to tailor your management depending on the audience (Training, 2010). For example, a different style would be applied when talking to co-workers as compared to when you are having a conversation with your significant other or even elders. Always learn to be short of words yet distinct. Learn to get your point across clearly with fewer words. Together with this, be concrete, correct, and even courteous. Give yourself time to think by pausing in the middle of the conversation (Leathers, Eaves, 2015). There is always that thinking that the people you are talking to are being impatient and would like you to give your information as quickly s possible, but this is not the case. So just compose yourself and relax. Another way to go round this is equipping you with fixed phrases that you can use when remaining silent. This gives you time to reflect, simply by repeating the question asked and add another sentence to it. An action is a plan containing enough details of achieving a goal or an objective. It includes a number of the main events that are going to take place (Alessi, 2014). It has the details of what actions will take place, who will conduct the actions, by when they will take place and for how long, what resources are required. The key events that I would undertake within the next six months to develop my skills include: Coming up with a reading plan, I would formulate a timetable for reading various self-help books such as How to Talk to Anyone, Crucial Conversations, Verbal Judo. This books would give me vocabularies to use, help me develop skills such as understanding my audience, the way to frame my sentences, how to effectively respond to a question when posed to me, and also ways to vary my tone. The second plan is regular watching of news and other TV shows. This would help me gain the right pronunciation of words, learn how to use body language depending on the setting and topic under discussion as well as the body language of the speaker. This would give me an interactive section where I would visualize precisely the behavior and response of the speaker versus audience as well as how to involve the audience in my communication. The third is undertaking a short course on communication skills in the University Of Australia. Taking the course gives me a chance to interact with other students and the instructors where I can personally try out and practice and every skill taught to me. Being personally involved would make get a quick understanding of all the necessary skills. ACTION OBJECTIVE TIME Coming up with a reading plan Enable me to gather enough vocabularies, understand my audience, ways of varying tone. 2-3 months Regular watching of news and other TV shows Learn how to pronounce words, learn how to engage my audience. 3 months Undertaking a short course in Communication Skills at The University of Australia. Practicing and applying the skills taught to me, engaging myself with other students as well as developing courage when in the presence of an audience 1-2 months Evaluating the Action Plan After I have completed each of the above events, it is important to evaluate or measure the successful completion of the events to make sure that my communication skills have improved. I need to ask myself various questions such as: how were my communication skills before I began the action plan, how my skills improved, and to what extent should I be competent in my skills. By answering this question, I can be able to figure out the state that I have reached, and my progress from the action plan. References Adler, R., Rodman, G. R., DuPr, A. (2016).Understanding human communication. Oxford University Press. Alessi, A. L. (2014). Communication Action Plan. Bodie, G. D., St. Cyr, K., Pence, M., Rold, M., Honeycutt, J. (2012). Listening competence in initial interactions I: Distinguishing between what listening is and what listeners do.International Journal of Listening,26(1), 1-28. Bodie, G. D., Vickery, A. J., Gearhart, C. C. (2013). The nature of supportive listening, I: Exploring the relation between supportive listeners and supportive people.International Journal of Auditing,27(1), 39-49. Broadbent, D. E. (2013).Perception and communication. Elsevier. Buchanan, G. M., Seligman, M. (Eds.). (2013).Explanatory style. Routledge. Burgoon, J. K., Guerrero, L. K., Floyd, K. (2016).Nonverbal communication. Routledge. Carlile, S. (2014). ACTIVE LISTENING: SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY IN NOISY ENVIRONMENTS.Acoustics Australia,42(2). Geissler, G. L., Edison, S. W., Wayland, J. P. (2012). Improving students' critical marketing, creativity, and communication skills.Journal of Instructional Pedagogies,8, 1. Guffey, M. E., Loewy, D. (2012).Essentials of business communication. Cengage Learning. Holloway, K., Mitobe, L., Atherton, M. (2015, March). Teacher/Mentor Training-Active Listening. InSociety for Information Technology Teacher Education International Conference(pp. 1531-1538). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Islam, M. N. (2012). An Investigation on How to Improve Tertiary Students Listening Skill of English.Journal of Studies in Education,2(2), 205-214. Keyton, J., Caputo, J. M., Ford, E. A., Fu, R., Leibowitz, S. A., Liu, T., ... Wu, C. (2013). Investigating verbal workplace communication behaviors.The Journal of Business Communication (1973),50(2), 152-169. Leathers, D. G., Eaves, M. (2015).Successful nonverbal communication: Principles and applications. Management. Lemonnier, P. (2012).Mundane objects: Materiality and non-verbal communication(Vol. 10). Left Coast Press. Owens Jr, R. E. (2016). Language Development: An Introduction| Edition: 9.Instructor. Rost, M., Candlin, C. N. (2014).Listening in language learning. Routledge. Thomas, G. F., Stephens, K. J. (2015). An introduction to strategic communication. Training, M. T. D. (2010).Effective communication skills. Bookboon. Tyagi, B. (2013). Listening: An important skill and its various aspects.The Criterion An International Journal in English,2(12), 1-8.

The Old Man And The Sea Essays (527 words) - Ichthyology, Fisheries

The Old Man And The Sea In The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway there are two characters who have a great friendship, the old man and the young boy. The old man has been fishing for many years and for the last eighty-four days has not caught a fish. Now the boy who looks up to him is not allowed to fish with him anymore. This boy looks up to the old man as a hero because the old man shows courage, perseverance, and respect. The old man shows courage just by going out all alone everyday and still fishing at his age. Although he showed the most courage when he had to fight the big fish. He could have let the fish go, by cutting the line, but instead the old man was willing to die trying to catch it. ?He had seen many that weighed more than a thousand pounds... Now alone, and out of sight, he was fast to the biggest fish that he had ever seen and bigger than he had heard of? (pg 63) Yet he didn't fear the fish because he knew that if he fought the fish wisely he could beat it. However, if he lost his courage, then he would be done for and would never see the fish again. Not only does the old man show courage but he also shows perseverance. This man went eighty-four days without catching a fish. Yet he woke up every morning, way before dawn and get ready for a day of fishing. He knew that if he stuck with it, then his perseverance would pay off in the long run. Ever as he's fighting the fish he shows perseverance. ?Fish he said softly, aloud ?I'll stay with you until I die(52) This shows that he was in for the fight of his life and that he was willing for his life to end before giving up. And in the end his perseverance pays off and he finally gets the fish to the boat. The boy also looks up to the old man because of the old mans respect. He has respect for everything and everyone. He respects the boy by treating him like a son, the fish by realizing the beauty of it, and him self by not giving up on trying to catch the fish. ?You are killing me fish, the old man thought. But you have a right to. Never have I seen a greater, or more beautiful, or a calmer, more noble thing than you, brother,?(92). This shows the respect and the lover that the old man has for the fish and all things. The old man is a hero to the young boy for all of these reasons. The young boy loves the old man and helps him by carrying stuff for him, getting him bait, and cooking for him. Everything the old man says and does affects the boy. The old man stands for all the heroic qualities that the young boy wants to have, courage, perseverance, and respect. The old man is a perfect hero for the boy. Book Reports

The Domestication of Maize in America

The Domestication of Maize in America Maize (Zea mays) is a plant of enormous modern-day economic importance as foodstuff and alternative energy source. Scholars agree that maize was domesticated from the plant teosinte (Zea mays spp. parviglumis) in central America at least as early 9,000 years ago. In the Americas, maize is called corn, somewhat confusingly for the rest of the English-speaking world, where corn refers to the seeds of any grain, including barley, wheat or rye. The process of maize domestication radically changed it from its origins. The seeds of wild teosinte are encased in hard shells and arranged on a spike with five to seven rows, a spike that shatters when the grain is ripe to disperse its seed. Modern maize has hundreds of exposed kernels attached to a cob which is completely covered by husks and so cannot reproduce on its own. The morphological change is among the most divergent of speciation known on the planet, and it is only recent genetic studies that have proven the connection. The earliest undisputed domesticated maize cobs are from Guila Naquitz cave in Guerrero, Mexico, dated about 4280-4210 cal BC. The earliest starch grains from domesticated maize have been found in the Xihuatoxtla Shelter, in the Rio Balsas valley of Guerrero, dated to ~9,000 cal BP. Theories of Maize Domestication Scientists have put forward two main theories about the rise of maize. The teosinte model argues that maize is a genetic mutation direct from teosinte in the lowlands of Guatemala. The hybrid origin model states that maize originated in the Mexican highlands as a hybrid of diploid perennial teosinte and early-stage domesticated maize. Eubanks has suggested a parallel development within the Mesoamerican interaction sphere between lowland and highland. Recently starch grain evidence has been discovered in Panama suggesting the use of maize there by 7800-7000 cal BP, and the discovery of wild teosinte growing in the Balsas river region of Mexico has lent support to that model. The Xihuatoxtla rockshelter in the Balsas river region reported in 2009 was discovered to contain domesticated maize starch granules in occupation levels dated to the Paleoindian period, more than 8990 cal BP. That suggests that maize may have been domesticated by hunter-gatherers thousands of years before it became a staple of peoples diets. The Spread of Maize Eventually, maize spread out from Mexico, probably by the diffusion of seeds along trade networks rather than migration of people. It was used in the southwestern United States by about 3,200 years ago, and in the eastern United States beginning about 2,100 years ago. By 700 AD, maize was well established up into the Canadian shield. DNA studies suggest that purposeful selection for various traits continued throughout this period, leading to the wide variety of species today. For example, 35 different races of maize have been identified in pre-Columbian Peru, including popcorns, flint varieties, and varieties for specific uses, such as chicha beer, textile dyes, and flour. Agricultural Traditions As maize was spread outside of its roots in central America, it became part of already existing agricultural traditions, such as the Eastern Agricultural complex, which included pumpkin (Cucurbita sp), chenopodium and sunflower (Helianthus). The earliest direct-dated maize in the northeast is the 399–208 cal BC, in the Finger Lakes region of New York, at the Vinette site. Other early appearances are Meadowcroft Rockshelter Archaeological Sites Important to Maize Archaeological sites of importance to the discussion of maize domestication include Central America:  Ã‚  Xihuatoxtla Shelter  (Guerrero, Mexico), Guila Naquitz (Oaxaca, Mexico) and  Coxcatlan Cave  (Tehuacan, Mexico)Southwest USA:  Bat Cave  (New Mexico),  Gatecliff Shelter  (Nevada)Midwest USA: Newt Kash Hollow (Tennesee)Northeast USA: Vinette (New York), Schultz (Michigan), Meadowcroft (Pennsylvania) Some Recent Maize Studies This glossary entry is a part of the About.com Guide to  Plant  Domestications,  and part of the  Dictionary of Archaeology. Carpenter Slavens J, and Snchez G. 2013.  Los cambios ambientales del Holoceno Medio/ Holoceno Tardà ­o en el desierto de Sonora y sus implicaciones en la diversificacià ³n del Yuto-aztecano y la difusià ³n del maà ­z.  Dilogo Andino  41:199-210. Ellwood EC, Scott MP, Lipe WD, Matson RG, and Jones JG. 2013.  Stone-boiling maize with limestone: experimental results and implications for nutrition among SE Utah preceramic groups.  Journal of Archaeological Science  40(1):35-44. Freeman, Jacob. Crop Specialization, Exchange and Robustness in a Semi-arid Environment. Human Ecology, John M. Anderies, Andrea Torvinen, et al., Volume 42, Issue 2, SpringerLink, January 29, 2014. Gil AF, Villalba R, Ugan A, Cortegoso V, Neme G, Michieli CT, Novellino P, and Durn V. 2014.  Isotopic evidence on human bone for declining maize consumption during the little ice age in central western Argentina. Journal of Archaeological Science 49(0):213-227. Grimstead DN, Buck SM, Vierra BJ, and Benson LV. 2015.  Another possible source of archeological maize found in Chaco Canyon, NM: The Tohatchi Flats area, NM, USA.  Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports  3:181-187. Haas J, Creamer W, Huamn Mesà ­a L, Goldstein D, Reinhard KJ, and Vergel Rodrà ­guez C. 2013.  Evidence for maize (Zea mays) in the Late Archaic (3000-1800 B.C.) in the Norte Chico region of Peru.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  110(13):4945-4949. Hart JP, and Lovis WA. 2013. Reevaluating What We Know About the Histories of Maize in Northeastern North America: A Review of Current Evidence. Journal of Archaeological Research  21(2):175-216 Killion TW. 2013.  Nonagricultural cultivation and social complexity.  Current Anthropology  54(5):596-606. Matsuda, Masahiko. Upland Farming Systems Coping with Uncertain Rainfall in the Central Dry Zone of Myanmar: How Stable is Indigenous Multiple Cropping Under Semi-Arid Conditions? Human Ecology 41, ResearchGate, December 2013. Reed PF, and Geib PR. 2013.  Sedentism, Social Change, Warfare, and the Bow in the Ancient Pueblo Southwest.  Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews  22(3):103-110. Snchez-Pà ©rez S, Solleiro-Rebolledo E, Sedov S, de Tapia EM, Golyeva A, Prado B, and Ibarra-Morales E. 2013.  The Black San Pablo Paleosol of the Teotihuacan Valley, Mexico: Pedogenesis, Fertility, and Use in Ancient Agricultural and Urban Systems.  Geoarchaeology  28(3):249-267. Shillito, Lisa-Marie. Grains of truth or transparent blindfolds? A review of current debates in archaeological phytolith analysis. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, Volume 22, Issue 1, SpringerLink, January 2013. Thompson V, Gremillion K, and Pluckhahn T. 2013.  Challenging the Evidence for Prehistoric Wetland Maize Agriculture at Fort Center, Florida.  American Antiquity  78(1):181-193. VanDerwarker A, Marcoux J, and Hollenbach K. 2013.  Farming and Foraging at the Crossroads: The Consequences of Cherokee and European Interaction Through the Late Eighteenth Century.  American Antiquity  78(1):68-88. 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The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer †Earth Science Essay

The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer – Earth Science Essay Free Online Research Papers The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer Earth Science Essay This essay will take two contrasting case studies, global warming and the ozone layer, to show both the successes and failures that have so far been gained in dealing with this issue. The political economy of the two case studies will be analysed from the three main theoretical points which will aim to explain why the main state actors acted as they did or did not. 2. Global Environmental Degradation 2.1 Definition Environmental degradation is the transformation of an ecosystem in a negative manner that affects the conditions and/or the quality and quantity of flora/fauna in the ecosystem (Held et al. 2000:377). Due to the interlinked nature of ecosystems, when the natural ecology of an area is destroyed, the environment will also be altered. For example, over farming can lead to the desertification of once arable land and excessive urbanisation can cause an increase in flooding. This degradation can occur on a local, transnational or global scale. At the local level fly tipping in rural woodland will only have an impact on the immediate area. At the transnational level are the problems of cross boundary pollution, for example the accusation by Scandinavian countries that a large proportion of the acid rain falling on their countries originates from industrial outputs from the UK (ITE 1997:80). At the global level are problems that affect what are known as the global commons. The are reso urces that are considered to be the common ownership of humanity, upon which no state can have a sole claim to sovereignty or authority over them, for example the atmosphere or the ocean beds (Held et al 2000:378). Global environmental degradation is therefore any process that affects these environmental global commons in a negative manner. 2.2 Forms Mainly due to restrictions of space this essay will be concerned with global environmental degradation issues. However, this is also the area of study that has resulted in a significant area of both international cooperation and conflict, demonstrated by the successes, and failures, of the many international regimes established to attempt to deal with the problems. Regardless of ones view on whether globalization is a new distinct phenomenon or not (Held 2000:10), it is clearly the case that global environmental degradation on the current scale is the product of the globalization of commerce and industrialisation. At the dawn of the industrial revolution environmental degradation was mainly localised, for example the â€Å"pea-soup† fogs caused by coal burning in Victorian England (Hunt 2004). As industrialisation has spread around the world and increased in density in the developed world so has environmental damage (Vig 1999:1). It is also a significant area to study due to the inherently economic and political nature of the causes and perpetuation of the problem. The issue of global environmental degradation is one that has been discussed in many disciplines, from the natural sciences through to social science disciplines such as Security Studies and International Relations (cf Buzan et al 1998). The globalization of environmental degradation has widened the range of the problem, indeed it has now arguably become all humanities problem rather than just a few, however due to both geography and economics, the burdens of global warming will not be distributed equally among humanity as is discussed below (Ross Blackmore 1991:175) 2.2 A brief history of global responses Since global environmental degradation first crept onto the international agenda in the seventies there have been numerous attempts at setting up solid international regimes to help to combat the problem, the most significant being the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972 (Greene 2001:390). This was established as a result of the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment and aimed to establish a coordinated multinational effort to recognise and attempt to solve problems of environmental degradation at all levels and to conceptualise environmental damage in the context of development. (ibid.). There have also sprung up numerous NGO groups since then, for example Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace founded in 1969 and 1971 respectively (FOE 2004; Greenpeace 2004 ). Despite this progress reaching a global consensus on how to prevent damage to the global commons has been slow. 3. Case Study #1: The depletion of the ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol 3.1 The Ozone Layer and CFCs Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen with one electron in its outer shell, making it highly reactive, that is found in the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere. It is formed when radiation from the sun splits oxygen atoms (O2) into individual molecules, which then bond with O2 atoms to form O3 (Blackmore 1996:90). Ozone plays a vital part in the atmosphere by absorbing radiation from the sun and keeping the temperature on the Earth so that it can support life. At present under ideal conditions the amount of ozone in the stratosphere is about 10 parts per million per volume (ACDR 2003). Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a wide family of man made inert chemical gasses composed of chlorine, fluorine and carbon (Hardy 2003:18). When they were discovered in the 1930s they were believed to be the ideal gasses for refrigeration, propellants in aerosols, industrial solvents and for making foamed plastics due to their stable, non-flammable and non-toxic properties (Blackmore 1996:70). It is only when they are released into the atmosphere that they become a problem; as CFCs are lighter than air they rise high into the atmosphere when released. It is when they reach the layer of ozone in the stratosphere that problems occur. In the stratosphere they are broken down by radiation from the sun, causing a chemical reaction to take place that destroys ozone. Due to the stable nature of the halon molecules from CFCs they are not destroyed; one molecule of chlorine for example can destroy 100,000 ozone ones (Hardy 2003:18). This process is only limited by the amount of chlorine a toms available in the atmosphere and destroys ozone at a much higher rate than nature can create it, resulting in depletion of the protective ozone layer (ACDR 2003). Depletion of the ozone layer on a large scale would result in the planet becoming increasingly hotter, causing a rise in skin cancer, cataracts and damage to crops, amongst other effects (Thomas 1992:207). 3.2 International Response Concern first arose over the damage that CFCs may cause to the ozone layer in the 1970s in the US. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) after a long and protracted struggle with chemical manufactures led by DuPont, banned the use of all CFCs except for essential uses such as refrigeration (Greene 2001:402). In 1984 it was discovered that there was massive loss in the atmospheric ozone over Antarctica each spring, which became known as the â€Å"ozone hole†. By 1988 it had been proven conclusively by science that this was due to CFC release into the atmosphere and that the problem would continue for as long they were discharged into the atmosphere (Blackmore 1996:71). Other developed states soon followed suite (ACDR 2003). The first international regime aimed at dealing with the problem of ozone depletion was the 1985 Vienna Convention which established a framework for solving the issue (Molitor 1999:222) after widespread publicity and concern over the effect of CFC s. The Montreal Protocol of 1989 was the result of the Vienna Convention. Under the Protocol CFC usage was to be reduced by 50% by the year 2000 (Greene 2001:401). . Most states were persuaded to join, though developing states, led by China and India, were only persuaded to join once a Multilateral Fund was established by the industrialized states to pay the incremental costs occurred by the Protocol. The Protocol has been the subject of many amendments and the date of phasing out CFCs was moved forwards eventually to 1996 for developed countries and 2010 for developing countries (UNEP 2003). The ozone hole issue was easily solved due a combination of science, economics and politics. International cooperation to limit the damage to the ozone layer has been a major success; with ozone depleting substances (ODS) now believed to be at their peak in the stratosphere. Due to the long life time of CFCs already in the stratosphere there will be an estimated lag time of up to a decade before the ozone layer is at its full natural level (UNEP 2003:4.3). Figure 1 shows the global decrease in CFC production. The EU and the US had both phased out their stocks of CFCs by 1996, although the developing world proved more difficult (Greene 2001:401). The MLF established by the richer states at the Montreal Protocol was the most important method by which developing states were helped to cease production. In addition to the MLF a programme of technology transfer was established (Parson 1995:50). The MLF was administered by an executive committee consisting of representatives from each region on the planet and operates through the World Bank, UNEP and the UN Development Program (ibid.). Figure 1 4. Case Study #2: Global Warming and the Kyoto Protocol 4.1 The Greenhouse Effect and human contribution to it The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, and 0.93% argon, however it is the trace gasses which constitute only the tiny remaining percentage of the atmosphere that most affect climate (Hardy 2003:3). The main trace substances in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (ibid. p5), known as greenhouse gasses due to their role in the greenhouse effect. As the sun’s energy travels through the Earth’s atmosphere, 26% of the energy is reflected back into space by clouds and particles in the atmosphere. 19% is absorbed by clouds and gasses in the atmosphere and 4% is reflected off the surface off the Earth (Gow Pidwiny 1996). Only approximately 51% of the suns energy is transferred to the surface of the earth where it causes photosynthesis, heats the ground etc. When the radiation from the sun is absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere i t reduces the wavelength of the radiation reaching the ground. This is a vital part of the global ecosystem, without it the planet would be devoid of life; however it is human agency that is causing the present day problem by amplifying the natural effect (Fraser 2003). As a result the radiation reradiated from the earth is of a lot shorter wavelength, and gets trapped by the atmosphere, producing an insulating effect. This effect is shown in figure 2. Figure 2 4.2 International Response Although the greenhouse effect is a vital natural occurrence, there is strong scientific evidence that human agency, especially due to industrialization is increasing the amount of greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere. This has the effect of thus increasing the greenhouse effect beyond its natural levels, causing the planet to warm up (Ross Blackmore 1991:149; Greene 2001:404; Held et al 2000:384). Through the seventies and eighties there were many international programmes and agreements established, though none of major significance until the agreement in 1989 that there should be an â€Å"Earth Summit† in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Green 2001:393). In 1990 the United Nations Environment Program set up the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which published Policymakers Summary of the Scientific Assessment of Climate Change, the first scientific report of international significance to acknowledge the problem. The opening page of the report stated. â€Å"these increases [in the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere] will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in additional warming of the Earth’s surface† (cited in Thomas 1992: 157-158) At the Rio conference all the states present agreed upon a set of principals and aims, including the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to combat ozone depletion and global warming (Green 2001:405). Under article 2 of the Convention states were committed to achieving stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentration that would contribute to global warming (NEF 2003:2). The next summit was at Kyoto where states agreed to implement the principals agreed at Rio. The â€Å"Kyoto Protocol† as this became known included an agreement that states would work to lower their greenhouse gas emissions, which aimed to become legally binding once ratified by the signatory states (ibid. p408). Annex I countries (OECD states plus selected former Soviet Bloc states) were to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 5.2% below 1990 levels by 2008-2012 (NEF 2003:2). The treaty was ratified by the EU but significantly not by the US, Russia or Australia (ibid.) A system of emissions t rading was also proposed, however there was no agreement on mandatory limitations due to US disagreement, as such the list of targets was just seen as recommendations (ibid. p229), resulting in the treaty getting off to a weak start. The extent and rate of global warming is still debated in the scientific community as some claim it may be no more than a natural cycle in the Earth’s climate, however there is near universal agreement that the release of greenhouse gasses into the environment is worsening the problem (Beckerman 1992:pp254-255). There is also uncertainty about the rate and extent at which global warming will occur, a factor that has hindered political efforts to combat the problem (Hodge 1995:175; Lomborg 1998:pp258-323). In addition to debate over the nature of global warming the political and economic arguments concerning global warming are also still on-going. Problems concerning global environmental degradation have proved difficult to solve due to the issues of free-riding and the so-called â€Å"tragedy of the commons†. These two concepts, explained below, have hindered many of the attempts at making progress on global environmental issues and will need to be overcome for the universal good of humanity. 4.3 Costs and difficulties with climate control There is little doubt that combating climate change would be an expensive measure for all (Pakerr 2002). The two most commonly suggested solutions are a tax on CO2 output or a system of tradable permits (ibid.). Levying a tax on CO2 output has been one of the most widely suggest proposals for dealing with the problem (Paarlberg 1999: 242). This would act as an incentive on industry to develop greener technologies and would provide governments with the income to assist with developing greener environmental policies (Hodge 1995:184). However the knock on effects of such a tax would be unevenly distributed. The price of all fossil fuels would rise not just for industry, but for individuals as well. As those on lower incomes generally spend a higher proportion of their incomes on energy it would affect them significantly more than it would industry (ibid. p185). In order to prevent capital flight from states implementing such a policy it would have to be a co-coordinated global ef fort, otherwise the first states to impose such a policy will find their industry simply relocates to states that do not have carbon taxes. States are also likely to find it hard to pass such a proposal due to lobbying by business (Paarlberg 1999:242). If this solution was attempted at a global level it would undoubtedly be very difficult to achieve. A key reason for this is the argument by developing states that they should not be penalized for a problem that was created until recently almost exclusively by the industrialized West (REF). A proposal such as a carbon tax would also be likely hinder development and industrialization in the developing world. 5. Theories and concepts in IPE For the purpose of this essay only the modern variants of the three central perspectives shall be analyzed, this is due to space restrictions and that it is not relevant to give an account of the development of the views in order to explain their impact on present day thinking regarding global environmental degradation. 5.1 Free Riding and the Tragedy of the Commons The tragedy of the commons is a model which demonstrates why actors acting rationally in their self interest will end up harming everyone’s interests in the long term and comes from the work of Hardin (1968). Hardin demonstrates how certain situations can produce no net gains for all when actors act rationally to increase their utility. He explains this by using a parable of a field shared by several herdsmen, a situation which worked happily for centuries with the expansion of the herdsmen limited by events such as war, pestilence etc.. Eventually a situation will arise where there is nothing to stop the common land being used to its maximum capacity. Each herdsman will see it rational to add another cow as it will add to his utility. Each herdsman will gain greatly from having another cow, but will only be slightly affected by the decrease in space on the common. As each actor is rational they will keep adding more and more cows, thinking they are not harming the commo n and only bearing a fraction of the cost of damage to the common. When common is full however, and all the grass eaten then all will lose at once (Hardin 1968:1243). Although Hardin was talking about population growth the same model fits well to describe attempts to find a political and economic solution to the problems of global environmental degradation. Free riding is the situation whereby contributors to the public good, in this case preventing global warming, are unable to ensure that those benefiting from the public good are actually contributing and not just relying upon the work of others (Coneybear 1984:6). This is a particularly important problem in relation to economic matters such as global warming, where if many states were to adopt measures that were beneficial to the environment, but harmful to their economies then they would be at a significant economic disadvantage to those states which did not do so. Free riding would be easier with global warming measures due to the wide range of ODS that industries use, in comparison to ozone measures which are much more easily monitored. 5.2 The mercantilist perspective Mercantilism sees economic practice as part of a states national security, strong economies are necessary in order to strengthen a state militarily (Woods 2001:285). Mercantilism is related to realism in International Relations Theory and shares many of the same assumptions, such as the primacy of the state and viewing the international arena as anarchical (Gilpin 1987:31). States should act in economic ways that benefit them directly, and see the world in zero-sum terms. This method of thinking would claim that there is no logical reason for states to attempt to do anything about global warming, especially considering the economic costs involved, unless there is a direct threat to a states’ security, as was believed to be the case with the US and ozone depletion (Parson 1995:69) Mercantilist thinking is partly evident in the US’ rejection of the Kyoto protocol. The current Bush administration has pursued many mercantilist projects since coming to power, pandering to big industry by, against all ideals of neoliberal free trade, placing tariffs on imports in which the US is not competitive, for example on clothing (Rockwell 2003). There is a strong movement in the US against joining the Protocol or any future regime along the same lines due to the belief that it would harm the US economy (Beder et al 1997). The US Energy Information administration estimated that implicating the Kyoto Protocol would cost the US economy a minimum of $283bn and a maximum of (EIA 2002) out of a GDP of $10.4trillion (CIA 2003). This is the main argument against why the US will not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. Lobbying of the Bush administration by large polluting industries, of which the biggest donator was the now collapsed energy concern Enron (Weinberg 2003), prevente d the Protocol being ratified in the US senate. The Senate refused to ratify any treaty which did not include a demand that developing states reduce their emissions as well, rather than the scaled proposals (Molitor 1999:225). This has been seen by some commentators as the US trying to secure its own position as the leading world economy by restricting the development of the undeveloped and developing world. Bello (2003) argues that China was the principal target of this thinking as its rapidly expanding economy poses a threat to US economic domination. If the US had its greenhouse gas emissions restricted it would arguably find itself in a weaker economic position than China. Although mercantilist thinking is becoming an increasing part of US economic policy (Bello 2003), see for example the banana and steel wars with the EU, it will only serve to undermine the US’ own strength in the long run. Hegemonic stability theory, based on the work of Gramsci, claims that when other states start to perceive the hegemon’s actions as self-serving and against their own political and economic interests, the whole system will be weakened (Gilpin 1987:73). Hegemonic states need an ideological consensus for support, military strength is not enough. The US under Bush has clearly lost a lot of goodwill even from its allies in the EU over following mercantilist thinking, both in respect to trade and the environment (Shwarz 2001). 5.3 The neoliberal perspective Neoliberalism is regarded today as the basis of the global economy, the so-called Washington Consensus with its key institutions of the WTO, IMF and the World Bank (Cox 2001:120).Those adopting the neoliberal position for political economy are also likely to reject any form of attempting to solve the problem of greenhouse gas emission via taxation. Neoliberalism’s strong belief in the free-market economy and unregulated trade makes it hard to justify from the perspective any intervention in the market (Gilpin 1987:27). Neoliberalism also claims that politics should be separated from economics as much as possible, however global warming is clearly a situation that requires both a political and economic solution. Cleaver describes neoliberalism as â€Å"both an ideology and a strategy† (1997), meaning that it provides both the means and the ends of the global economy. Neoliberal thought regards global warming, like any other crisis to markets, as something that will be stabilized by the â€Å"invisible hand†, claiming that intervention by states will result in market inefficiency and will hinder (Beder 2001:129). Neoliberals believe that the solution to global warming either lies in a partnership between business and governments (Cleaver 1997) or that it lies in letting a free market devise its own solution as aforementioned (Beder 2001:129) for example as happened with the regime on ODS. Another proposed idea is the distribution of rights to areas that were previously considered global commons, such as the atmosphere in the belief that this will create a market for scarce resources, making them hugely expensive and therefore morel likely to be valued (ibid.p131) Some have argued that the implementation of the Kyoto protocol by states will benefit their internal economy as energy companies compete for green investment and are stimulated to develop new green technology (Valentine 2002). If the Protocol was enacted on a global level then states would compete to develop green technology in order to encourage business to invest. It is possible that under this situation the US could emerge a winner as it has the initial capital and technology which to invest in alternative technologies. 5.4 The Marxist perspective Marxist political economy has developed greatly since first put forward by Marx and Engles in the nineteenth century (Gilpin1987:34) and now takes many different forms. All forms of Marxism share in common some basic tenets, however only those relating to political economy will be considered here. The first is that history is shaped by the changing nature of economic production, the second that the capitalist mode of production and its future are governed by a series of economic laws (Gilpin 1987:35). Today Marxism has very little impact in the policy arena and has largely been relegated to academic studies. However Marxist views on the nature of capitalism are still relevant to the study of political economy. Marx saw the industrial revolution in Europe as based on the systematic exploitation of the working classes, today globalization can be seen as based on the principal only this time based on the exploitation of the developing world (Edwards-Jones et al 2000:16). Global environmental degradation is seen by today’s neo-Marxists as due to the nature of global capitalism, which will always aim to seek short term profitability and exploitation from the natural as well as human environment, with little thought for the long term consequences (ibid. p17). However one irony of Marxist thought is its belief that the natural environment is there to be exploited by science and technology, something that can be clearly seen in the former Soviet countries abysmal environmental record (ibid.) 6. Comparison of the two case studies The international regime to combat atmospheric release of ODS has been a resounding success as it has resulted in global production and consumption of ODS being reduced to 85% of what they were previous to the introduction of controls on them (Oberthur 2001:358). In comparison the Kyoto treaty lies largely in ruins, due mainly to pressure from business encouraging governments to refuse to ratify the treaty (Beder et al 1997). The final nail in the coffin has often been portrayed as the refusal of the Bush administration to ratify the treaty (Greenpeace 2001). However, it is arguable that the treaty had already been â€Å"killed† before then by others, such as France (Murray 2003). Environmental concerns are often seen by politicians and governments as less important than other issues, such as military security (Chalecki 2003). Despite attempts to redefine security, environmental issues have not made it high onto the agenda of many states, as such there is little political demand in government circles for states to act immediately, for example a selection of surveys of the US public from 2003-2004 show very little demand for political action on the environment (Polling Report 2004). 6.1 Economic comparison The economics of control of ODS were largely stacked in favour of banning them, especially for the US (DeCanio 2003:300). In 1987 the US chemical company Du Pont invented CFC substitutes over which it would have a production monopoly and would be able to dominate the market gap left by ceasing production of CFCs (Thomas 1992:225). Any treaty on ODS would have given the US an economic advantage as the export of CFCs could provide a lucrative income. The US stood to benefit enormously from the Montreal Protocol, even to the extent that it would have been economically viable for the US to adopt the entire cost of phasing out CFCs globally (Parson 1995:69). The US stood to gain an estimated $6.4 trillion by implementing the Montreal Protocol, mainly due to avoiding cancer deaths (ibid.). However, although US support was vital to the establishment of the international regime, it was not the sole cause and ozone depletion would not have been solved by a unilateral approach. In additio n to gains the US economy would benefit from as its assumed position as the main supplier of CFC substitutes (Thomas 1992:225) it was also attributable to the oligpolistic nature of CFC production, which was concentrated in the hands of just a few TNCs (Greer Singh 2000), for example DuPont controlled 25% of the global market (Thomas 1992:219). TNCs also eventually supported the campaign to legislate CFC production, knowing that they stood to gain (Greene 2001:402) graph showing reduction This is all a huge contrast to the economics of the Kyoto agreement. Figure 3 shows how there has been no significant decline in greenhouse gas output despite the attempts. To reach the targets of greenhouse gas reduction would require most developed states to restructure their entire economies away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energies. Although scientific evidence for global warming is strong, it is still far from irrefutable in the way ozone depletion is (cf. Lomborg 1998). There are many different models of what is likely to happen with huge differences in the amount, or in some cases lack of, global warming that will occur (Beckerman 1992:258). There is also no consensus on the role of â€Å"carbon sinks† such as forests and the oceans which it is argued may keep global warming in equilibrium due to absorbing CO2, the main greenhouse gas. This has allowed corporations and business concerns of all sizes the opportunity to claim that the science behind glob al warming is flawed and that the problem is not real (Beder et al 1997). Businesses in all developed states launched a protracted lobbying campaign against legislative bodies, aiming at getting the Protocol blocked. In the US a multitude of business interest groups were formed, with one spending  £10million on TV advertising alone to persuade the public that Kyoto would cost jobs and money (ibid.). The biggest hindrance to any solution to global warming is the reluctance of the US to get involved in any treaty that may harm their economy, despite accounting for 25% of global greenhouse gas output in 2003 yet with only 4.6% of the global population (NEF 2003:6). Figure 4 shows how the industrialized world accounts for more than a third of all greenhouse gas emissions, with half of that due to the US alone. In addition, many neoliberal think-tanks with vested interests, such as funding from environmentally harming industries have worked hard at producing academic evidence to pr ove the hugely negative impact that any treaty on global warming would have, both theoretically and economically (Beder 2001). 6.3 Game Theory analysis The model of situation the international community and states find themselves in is also different with each of the treaties. The Montreal Protocol can be seen as a â€Å"privilege† type game, where the benefits to each actor outweigh the costs (Toke 2000:51). The Montreal Protocol allowed every state to â€Å"win†; those in the developing world received the finance to move away from CFC production so it cost them very little. The US also gained due to increasing its market share and everyone gained by the ozone layer being saved. In contrast global warming is seen as a classic prisoners’ dilemma, where the stakes are zero-sum and the only positive outcome depends on the cooperation of all involved and an absence free-riding (Toke 2000:51). Another issue lies in the different construction of the two regimes. Although the UNFCCC regime was based upon the structure of the WTO, it lacked primary rules that were agreed on by all participant states (Faure Lefevre 1999:144). Primary rules are those which define the behaviour of each member state and affect how much behaviour must change on joining the regime. This can account for why the UNFCCC has been less successful than the Montreal Protocol. The goals of the Montreal Protocol required only a limited number of changes in state behaviour, whereas the UNFCCC would require large scale changes by both industry and individuals (ibid.) 6.4 The global economic context Another significant problem with global warming regimes is the development aspect (Beckerman 1992:255). While countries in the developed world were able to finance the replacement of ODS in developing states through the MLF, to do so with global warming would be impossible due to the huge costs involved. Unlike trade and economic agreements, environmental ones are rarely legally binding and often amount to being voluntary (NEF 2003:4), as such there is no international adjudicator for solving disputes or enforcement in the manner of the WTO. The NEF 2003 report suggests that states wishing to achieve the goals of the Kyoto Protocol place trade barriers and import taxes on states failing to comply with the Protocol, however this largely goes against the dominant neoliberal principal of free trade. The World Bank has a Climate Change department which aims to provide the framework for a global carbon emission trading system (Carbon Finance 2004) however this system has not yet fully come into force. 7. Conclusion From the above evidence I would argue that based on current events a universal to global warming is unlikely to happen at any point in the near future. The two case studies provide good models of how global issues of environmental degradation can be solved or what may prevent them being solved. Problems or advantages lie in the economics of the problem, the science or technology involved with the problem, the form of the decision making process and issues concerning development all contribute to the likely success or failure of international environmental regimes. The most likely solution is one which embraces neoliberal ideology and provides an acceptable economic solution to all states or a shift in global priorities brought about by apparent and conclusive effects of global warming. The ideas outline in the NEF 2003 document may go someway to providing a solution if adopted on a global level. 8. Bibliography 8.1 Books Buzan, B. et al (1998) Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Lynne Rienner: Colorado, US) Edwards-Jones, G. et al (2000) Ecological Economics: An Introduction (Blackwell Science: Oxford) Gilpin, R. (1987) The Political Economy of International Relations (Princeton University Press) Hardy, J. (2003) Climate Change: Causes, Effects, and Solutions (Wiley: London) Held, D. et al (2000) Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Polity Press: London) Lomborg, B. (1998) The Skeptical Environmentalist (Cambridge University Press) Sjà ¶stedt, G. (1993) International Environmental Negotiations (Sage) Thomas, C. (1992) The Environment in International Relations (Royal Institute of International Affairs) Toke, D. (2000) Green Politics and Neoliberalism (Macmillan: Basingstoke) 8.2 Edited Books Beckerman, W. (1992) â€Å"Global Warming and Economic Action† in Hurrel, A. Kingsbury, B. eds. The International Politics of the Environment (Clarendon Press: Oxford) Blackmore, R. (1996) â€Å"Damage to the ozone layer† in Blackmore, R. Reddish, A. Global Environmental Issues (Hodder Stoughton) Faure, M. Lefevere, J. (1999) â€Å"Compliance with International Environmental Agreements† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Greene, O. (2001) â€Å"Environmental Issues† in Baylis, J. Smith, S. eds. The Globalization of World Politics (Oxford University Press: Oxford) Molitor, M. (1999) â€Å"The United Nations Climate Change Agreements† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Paarlberg, R. (1999) â€Å"Lapsed Leadership: US International Environmental Policy Since Rio in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Parson, E. (1995) â€Å"Protecting the Ozone Layer† in Hass, P. et al eds. Institutions for the Earth (1995) (MIT Press: London) Ross, S. Blackmore R. (1996) â€Å"Atmospheres and climate change† in Blackmore, R. Reddish, A. eds. Global Environmental Issues (Hodder Stoughton) Vig, N. (1999) â€Å"Introduction† in Vig, N. Axelrod, R. eds. The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy (Earthscan: London) Woods, N. (2001) â€Å"International Political Economy in an age of globalization† in Baylis, J. Smith, S. eds. The Globalization of World Politics (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 8.3 Journal Articles Beder, S. (2001) â€Å"Neoliberal Think Tanks and Free Market Environmentalism† Environmental Politics Vol.10:pp128-133 Conybeare, J. (1984) â€Å"Public Goods, Prisoners Dilemmas and the International Political Economy† International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28:1:pp. 5-22. DeCanio, S. (2003) â€Å"Economic Analysis, Environmental Policy, and Intergenerational Justice in the Reagan Administration† International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law Economics Vol.3:pp299-321 Hardin, G. (1968) â€Å"The Tragedy of the Commons† Science Vol.164:pp1243-1248 Oberthà ¼r, S. (2001) â€Å"Linkages between the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols† International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law Economics Vol.1:pp357-377 8.4 Reports ITE (1997) â€Å"Scientific Report of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology 1997-98† ceh.ac.uk/products_services/publications/online/annual/97-98/ (Institute of Terrestrial Ecology) UNEP (2002) â€Å"Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002† unep.org/ozone/sap2002.shtml retrieved 15/3/04 (United Nations Environment Program) 8.5 Online Sources Bello, W. (2003) â€Å"The Crisis of the Globalist Project and the New Economics of George W. Bush† globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/2003/0710bello.htm (Global Policy Forum) Retrieved 14/3/03 Carbon Finance (2004) â€Å"Carbon Finance Products of the World Bank† http://carbonfinance.org/ (Carbon Finance at the World Bank) Retrieved 20/3/04 Chalecki, E. (2003) â€Å"Environmental Security: A Case Study of Climate Change† pacinst.org/environment_and_security/env_security_and_climate change.pdf (Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security) Retrieved 20/3/04 CIA (2002) â€Å"United States of America† cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.html (CIA World Factbook 2003) Retrieved 20/3/04 Cleaver, H. (1997) Nature, Neoliberalism and Sustainable Development: Between Charybdis Scylla?† eco.utexas.edu/Homepages/Faculty/Cleaver/port.html Retrieved 18/3/04 FOE (2004) â€Å"Who We Are† foe.org/about/whoweare.html (Friends of the Earth) Retrieved 20/3/04 Fraser, A. (2003) ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadGreenhouse.html Retrieved 1/3/04 Gow Pidwiny http://royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mpidwirn/atmosphereandclimate/greenhouse.html Retrieved 29/3/04 Greenpeace (2001) â€Å"The Climate Cannot Wait for Bush† http://archive.greenpeace.org/climate/climatecountdown/documents /clicantwait.pdf Retrieved 18/3/04 Greenpeace (2004) â€Å"About Us† greenpeace.org/international_en/aboutus Retrieved 20/3/04 Greer, J. Singh, K. (2000) â€Å"A Brief History of Transnational Corporations† globalpolicy.org/socecon/tncs/historytncs.htm#bk2_ft22 (Global Policy Forum) Retrieved 20/3/04 Murray, I. (2003) â€Å"Who Killed Kyoto?† techcentralstation.com/052003M.html (TechCentral Station) retrieved 16/3/04 NEF (2003) â€Å"Free Riding on the Climate† neweconomics.org/gen/z_sys_PublicationDetail.aspx?pid=167 (New Economics Foundation) Retrieved 15/3/04 Pakerr, L. (2002) â€Å"Global Climate Change: Market-Based Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gases† policyalmanac.org/environment/archive/crs_climate_change_market.shtml (Almanac of Policy Issues) retrieved 12/3/04 Rockwell, L. (2003) â€Å"Mercantilism USA† mises.org/fullstory.asp?control=1283 (Ludwig von Mises Institute) retrieved 13/3/04 Schwarz, P. (2001) â€Å"Transatlantic relations enter an ice age† wsws.org/articles/2001/apr2001/eur-a06.shtml (World Socialist Website) retrieved 14/3/04 UNEP (2003) â€Å"Chemicals Phase Out Schedules† unep.org/ozone/Public_Information/4Aiv_PublicInfo_Facts_che micals.asp retrieved 15/3/04 8.6 Newspaper Articles Beder, S. et al (1997) â€Å"Who Killed Kyoto?† The Guardian, 29th October 1997, p. 4 Hunt, T. (2004) â€Å"Industrial Evolution† The Guardian, 12th January 2004-03-21 guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1120734,00.html Research Papers on The Political and Economic Issues of Global Warming and the Ozone Layer - Earth Science EssayRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andPETSTEL analysis of IndiaDefinition of Export QuotasBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfGenetic EngineeringAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductThe Project Managment Office SystemEffects of Television Violence on Children

See order info Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

See order info - Coursework Example The above discussed factors that include family structure, socio-economic status, community and own personal experiences influence decisions by several ways. These ways include change in moral judgments, emphasizing more modifying the behaviors of an individual and also inability to respond towards transforming socio-economic conditions (Kidder, n.d.). The factors mentioned above might conflict with the needs, preferences and biases of the patients and their respective families by making ineffective decisions by the family members relating to gaining proper treatment, not able to align the economic conditions with the treatment costs and irrelevant personal experience about the stated context (Claywell, 2014). There lay certain ethical theoretical frameworks that describe personal worldview about the aforesaid context in a best way. In this regard, such frameworks could be ascertained as virtue and compassion among others. For example, virtues associated with good character may support in adopting effective decisions towards deriving positive outcomes. On the other hand, exercising compassion with others in a particular setting may also describe personal worldview about the factors influencing decision-making procedure (Claywell,